Apart from the many instances where cryptocurrency holders get socially engineered (hoodwinked) into turning over their crypto or their account credentials to extremely clever and tenacious hackers (essentially, “user error”), the leading cause of cryptocurrency theft is a vulnerable cross-chain bridge. In fact, on the same day this interview with LayerZero co-founder and CEO Bryan Pellegrino was recorded at the Harvard Blockchain Conference, the AllBridge cross-chain bridge was exploited for approximately $574,000.

According to Pellegrino, approximately $4 billion has been stolen via cross-chain bridge exploits since late 2021. Pellegrino was at Harvard University’s annual blockchain conference to talk about what it takes to secure communications between chains—an area of particular interest to enterprises because, as enterprises are already learning, in the same way, that many businesses have to work with multiple fiat currencies, there’s a high likelihood that they’ll also have to deal with multiple cryptocurrencies which in turn means they’ll have to simultaneously deal with multiple public distributed ledgers. Secure inter-chain communication will be an absolute must.

As opposed to relying on smart contracts to handle cross-chain bridge management at the so-called application layer of blockchain, Pellegrino’s company has been focused on handling cross-chain bridging at the protocol layer; a layer that, like the Internet’s TCP/IP protocol, lives below the blockchain layer itself. Thus, the company’s name “LayerZero” (an implication that the lowest layer in the software stack where a blockchain exists is at layer 1, an idea that aligns with the way many different public distributed ledgers are described as “L1s”). 

While he was at Harvard’s Blockchain Conference, Pellegrino told BlockchainJournal.com editor-in-chief David Berlind that LayerZero has successfully secured over $7 billion, has over 35,000 applications running on its test net, with 3,500 apps now in production on the LayerZero main net. Said Pellegrino of LayerZero’s industrial strength, “You take a look at [which venture capitalists’] confidence have we [have] won; Sequoia, Andreessen, all these groups have made single bets in the space, and that bet has been on us.”

Aside from operating at the protocol level, what’s LayerZero’s secret to success? Well for starters, all of the code behind LayerZero has been purpose-built from scratch. Beyond that, are three convictions that are sacrosanct to everything LayerZero does; immutability, permissionlessness, and resistance to censorship.

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/why-layerzero-might-be-a-contender-enterprises-need-crosschain-bridges/

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I4pH02yaPbA

Why LayerZero Is A Contender For Enterprises In Need Of Cross-Chain Bridges

In an interview conducted at the NFT.NYC conference in New York, David Berlind engages in a conversation with Amy Kalnoki, the COO and co-founder of Bitwave. Bitwave is essentially an accounting solution that bridges the gap between an organization's traditional financial recordkeeping systems (e.g., NetSuite, Quickbooks, etc.) and its implementations of blockchain. The net effect, Kalnoki claims, is an automated consolidation of all financials (fiat and cryptocurrency) into one single source of truth in a way that's designed to simplify both financial recordkeeping and tax compliance. This arrangement overcomes the inability of traditional financial systems to cope with the complexities of cryptocurrency recordkeeping. 

Creating a single source of truth when public blockchains are involved is a highly nuanced process. Different organizations engage with different public blockchains for a variety of applications that involve different financial patterns. For example, whereas some organizations transact in certain cryptocurrencies as a part of their e-commerce workflows, other organizations rely on a public blockchain for non-payment-related applications that require crypto-based payment of a blockchain's service fees. In those and other use cases, organizations end up keeping some amount of crypto in their treasuries, and the tax implications connected to that activity are non-trivial. According to Kalnoki, it's not just fungible token activity that businesses must keep an eye on. Now, with businesses increasingly discovering the transformative power of non-fungible tokens (NFTs) to drive new or improved business outcomes – Kalnoki cites ticketing and gaming as two such applications – trying to track all blockchain-related financials using extemporaneous methods is not an option (which explains why Kalnoki was speaking at a conference about NFTs). 

The conversation shifts to regulatory challenges, focusing on IRS regulation 6050I, which aims to treat crypto transactions over $10,000 as cash equivalents, necessitating detailed reporting. It's a rare example of where a small shred of regulatory clarity exists such that businesses (and solution providers like Bitwave) can work with blockchain in observance of certain legal guardrails. But a dearth of such regulatory clarity is still problematic for most American businesses. As the gears of blockchain law and policy-making have essentially ground to a halt in Washington, DC, organizations are holding, back on their blockchain applications for fear of waking up one morning on the wrong side of the law.  Kalnoki acknowledges the need for more clarity in order to foster compliance and, ultimately, innovation. 

Finally, Kalnoki invites viewers to attend Bitwave's Enterprise Digital Assets Summit in Nashville (July 2024), where the conversation will address the challenges and solutions to business adoption of blockchain amid regulatory uncertainty.

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/bitwave-looks-ease-accounting-complexities-arise-enterprise-adoption-nfts

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nHeqppkXa8

For information about Bitcoin2024, please visit:
https://bitcoin2024.b.tc/2024

Bitwave Looks to Ease Accounting Complexities That Arise From Enterprise Adoption of NFTs

During the NFT.NYC 2024 Conference in New York, Blockchain Journal editor-in-chief David Berlind interviews one of the speakers at the event: Marc Baumann, founder of FiftyOne Ventures and Dematerialzd.xyz. Baumann is well-known for his opinionated analyses regarding the NFT-based customer loyalty and engagement programs operated by some of the world's biggest brands.  The discussion delves into the evolution of NFT use cases, which famously (or infamously, depending on your point of view) began with collectible digital images. Baumann responds to David's questions with a walk down memory lane, examining the past and current NFT landscapes, and eventually ends with some predictions about some of the more nuanced use cases, focusing on tangible business outcomes.

Baumann identifies four key verticals where NFTs are making waves in business applications. The first, tokenization and phygitals, involves the 1:1 marriage of physical items with their digital counterparts on-chain, often facilitated by near-field communication (NFC) chips. According to Baumann, this results in myriad possibilities for post-purchase activations and direct consumer engagement, such as unlocking rewards or exclusive experiences tied to the possession of specific products. Baumann talks about how physical items become proxies for their digital counterparts and vice versa, paving the way towards the idea of token-gating, a fusion of the physical and digital realms where either "twin" grants the holder exclusive, "velvet rope" style access to real or virtual world (a.k.a. "metaverse") customer journeys. 

Baumann also leans into loyalty and rewards, community and commerce, and data insights as the other three key verticals. Baumann emphasizes the need for brands to move beyond the allure of NFTs as standalone collectibles and instead focus on solving real business problems, creating value for consumers, and generating measurable ROI. 

Baumann and David spend a fair amount of time discussing the history of the recently scuttled Starbucks Odyssey NFT program as a bit of a stain on the NFT landscape. This leaves open the question of how, if a big brand like Starbucks can't make NFTs work, what enterprise can? This brings the discussion full circle back to the challenges associated with collectibility (one of the main features of the Odyssey program).

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/dematerialzd-researcher-marc-baumann-discusses-post-starbucks-business-value-nfts-nftnyc

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rV2ZBY7vuOk

Dematerialzd Researcher Marc Baumann Discusses the Post Starbucks Business Value of NFTs at NFT.NYC

In this fascinating bit of tribal storytelling, BlockhainJournal.com editor-in-chief David Berlind interviews Will Entriken, the lead author of the NFT standard (technically referred to as the ERC-721 specification) at the NFT.NYC conference in New York City.

Entriken is a pivotal figure in the history and development of blockchain-based NFTs (non-fungible tokens). Without his Herculean efforts, the ERC-721 spec as it's known today might not even exist. The same might be said for the current process of ratifying any ERC spec. ERC stands for "Ethereum Request for Comments," a phrase and community-driven consensus process that harkens back to the time-tested RFC (Requests for Comments) process used by the Internet Engineering Task Force to set standards for Internet protocols like the Transmission Control Protocol (the "TCP" part of "TCP/IP"). During the interview, Entriken describes how an entire open source political, deliberation, and development process had to be scaffolded before a standard like ERC-721 could be brought across the finish line.  That scaffolding went on to benefit other ERCs, the standards that sit behind the Ethereum public blockchain and that are often used as the basis for the standard specs found on other blockchains. Entriken explains how his history of working at Google on Linux-related open source projects prepared him for the role he played in establishing a standard process for ERC ratification while applying that process to the ERC-721 spec for NFTs.  

Entriken didn't just play a pivotal role in the development of the ERC process and 721 spec – he is the first to very humbly give credit to others who were involved in the work. He was also the first to mint an ERC-721 compliant NFT under the name "Su Squares."  

As the conversation progressed, Entriken and David explored the diverse applications of NFTs beyond the realm of art and collectibles. They discussed how NFTs could revolutionize supply chain transparency, corporate accountability, and consumer trust. Entriken emphasized that while NFTs serve as the underlying technology, the true value lies in the principles they embody, such as transparency, authenticity, and verifiability.

Looking towards the future, Entriken outlined a vision where NFTs seamlessly integrate into commonplace transactions, becoming as ubiquitous as the databases that currently underpin many daily interactions. Much the same way we don't talk about how databases are integral to our everyday lives, he envisions a shift away from a conversation about NFTs as they transition into a somewhat hidden infrastructural role. Of course, for this to be true about NFTs, it must also be true of blockchain as well.

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/lead-author-nft-standard-predicts-nfts-will-melt-fabric-our-everyday-lives

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ygg7WcAcj1o

Lead Author of the NFT Standard Predicts NFTs Will Melt Into The Fabric of Our Everyday Lives

From NFT.NYC 2024 in New York City, BlockchainJournal.com editor-in-chief David Berlind interviews Sam Whitaker, the founder of Quixotish, a newly launched startup focused on the usage of blockchain to drive the success of charities and non-profits. Given how Blockchain Journal is focused on implementations of blockchain meant to drive new or improved business outcomes for big brands and enterprises, Quixotish's first customer – St. Jude Children's Research Hospital – caught David's eye as one of the most well-known non-profits on the planet. During the interview, Whitaker explains how Quixotish's novel blockchain-based approach to driving charitable donations works. 

The general idea, as Whitaker describes it, is for a charity like St. Jude to curate donations of valuable blockchain-based assets (e.g., NFTs) and then for the charity to conduct an auction where those assets are sold on the secondary market with the proceeds flowing to St. Judes as fiat currency. On the surface, it sounds pretty simple. But it's also important for donors to know that when they're dealing with a relatively anonymized address on a blockchain, that address actually belongs to the intended charity. In other words, it can be a bit more complicated than it sounds. 

To ensure accountability, Whitaker highlights the steps he took with St. Jude, including the video recording of wallet setup sessions involving St. Jude representatives and the subsequent publication of these videos on Quixotish's platforms. The interview touches upon the significance of St. Jude's reputation and operational scale, framing it as the "Google" or "Apple" of the charity world, given the charity's multi-million dollar daily cash flow. Whitaker underscores the hospital's commitment to providing free care to children and openly sharing its research. 

Towards the end, Whitaker discusses the practical aspects of the auction, including its timing and accessibility to both crypto and fiat currency users by virtue of St. Jude's reliance on a combined NFT marketplace and custodial wallet solution from Magic Eden. By supporting crypto users across a long list of public blockchains as well as non-crypto users who prefer to deal in fiat currencies like the US dollar, he underscores the initiative's inclusivity, welcoming participation from individuals regardless of their familiarity with blockchain technology.

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/how-quixotish-is-helping-st-jude-charity-raise-money-blockchain-technology

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MHr3gx8Jy78

How Quixotish is Helping the St. Jude Charity To Raise Money with Blockchain Technology

While covering the NFT.NYC 2024 Conference in New York City, BlockchainJournal.com editor-in-chief David Berlind caught up with Mojito CEO Raakhee Miller, who, for nearly two years, has been talking about the idea that NFTs (non-fungible tokens) are the "new cookies." David first heard her talking about the idea in 2022 at the Consensus Conference in Austin, Texas. But when it comes to the role of browser cookies as a means for brands and media sites to maintain intimate connectivity with their customers and users, the technical utility of the cookie is facing more significant headwinds than ever.

This erosion of the cookie's utility is largely attributable to three trends: native and third-party ad-blocking technology for web browsers (which can be configured to block cookies as well), the prevalence of cookie consent forms that give web users the power to reject specific cookies, and the recent announcement by Google that it's disabling support for third party cookies in Chrome. Cookies are literally on their way "out," which begs the question of how that connection can be reformulated in a way that does a better job of respecting privacy than cookies ever did.

Enter NFTs and the idea that the NFT is the new cookie. In the interview, Miller emphasizes how NFTs can offer some of the utility of the cookie while at the same time, relying on the principles of decentralized ownership of data and user sovereignty to give customers more control than they had with cookies. Drawing parallels to the cookie, Miller explained how NFTs enable brands to engage with consumers both online and offline, fostering a more transparent and consent-driven ecosystem.

Miller also discussed Mojito's role in helping businesses navigate this transition, providing both strategic consulting and technological solutions to integrate Web3 principles into existing marketing strategies.

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/wait-what-blockchains-nfts-are-new-cookies-mojitos-raakhee-miller-explains

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LoIY0Y-RdRg

Wait, What?! Blockchain's NFTs are the New Cookies? Mojito's Raakhee Miller Explains

Blockchain Journal Customer Journey Analyst Sophie Maxx Waldman joins BCJ editor-in-chief David Berlind at the NFT.NYC blockchain conference for a conversation about the buzz at the event and how the death of the NFT-based Starbucks Odyssey customer engagement and loyalty program impacted her as both a program user and a Starbucks customer. 

Sophie has written about her experiences with the Odyssey program multiple times, and not only was she sad to see the program – one of the most visible of its kind in the world – come to an end, but Starbucks' termination of Odyssey raises questions about the viability of such NFT programs for other global brands. What went right? What went wrong? What does it mean for other global brands looking into NFTs to drive new or improved business outcomes? How might Starbucks take some of the learnings from the Odyssey program and incorporate them into its existing Rewards program (one of the largest and most visible customer loyalty programs in the world)?  

As David and Sophie point out, Starbucks tried pretty much everything in the book to make the program work. It integrated augmented reality into several of the user "journeys." It relied on NFTs to provide exclusive token-gated experiences. It rewarded program members with NFTs for repeat purchases and sampling new coffees. It gamified certain elements of the program including its Discord-based community center. But despite Odyssey's success at transforming traditional loyalty programs into immersive, social, and gamified experiences while at the same time fostering deeper customer connections with the brand, the program was still scuttled.

As Sophie and David discuss, one challenge faced by Starbucks and other brands entering the NFT space might have to do with the lack of a pre-existing collectible culture. They discuss how NFT initiatives from brands like Nike and Adidas were able to leverage collectibility as a key feature of the pre-blockchain sneakerhead culture (for which no Starbucks corollary existed). Lack of any mojo on the collectibility front wasn't the only issue with the Odyssey program. But it's one of several industry and brand-specific nuances that must be taken into consideration before launching an NFT strategy.

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/starbucks-scuttles-odyssey-one-worlds-most-visible-big-brand-blockchain-projects

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j2F1QcFrhnc

Starbucks Scuttles Odyssey: One of the World's Most Visible Big Brand Blockchain Projects

In a recent interview at the NFT.NYC conference in Manhattan, BlockchainJournal.com editor-in-chief David Berlind chats with Nicola Sebastiani, Chief Content Officer of The Sandbox. The Sandbox is a Roblox/Minecraft-style metaverse platform where pretty much all of the assets within, including the land itself, are blockchain-based NFTs that can be bought, sold, and traded on the secondary market. While much of the user experience found within The Sandbox is gamified (similar to that of Roblox and Minecraft), the virtual world platform is actually capable of a diverse range of experiences in music, entertainment, and B2C engagement thus serving as a vehicle for big brands and enterprises to launch their own metaverse experiences.

Sebastiani emphasized The Sandbox's unique proposition as a metaverse provider, enabling brands to create their own immersive experiences within a branded virtual world. Through partnerships and Sandbox-specific tools like Game Maker and VoxEdit, The Sandbox empowers brands to build tailored experiences, whether it's gaming, virtual concerts, learning environments, or museums. These experiences are interconnected within The Sandbox's metaverse, allowing users to travel from one brand's virtual experience to another completely unrelated experience without much friction. 

Blockchain technology plays a pivotal role in The Sandbox ecosystem, with virtual land, avatars, and assets being represented as NFT tokens. Additionally, The Sandbox facilitates occasional primary land sales within the platform (of which there will be a finite number), leaving secondary market transactions to occur externally on NFT marketplaces like OpenSea. Notable brands like Gucci, Warner Music, and The Walking Dead are among the 400 entities already leveraging The Sandbox's metaverse for immersive experiences.

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/sandbox-metaverse-pretty-much-everything-including-limited-parcels-land-is-an-nft

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qSuZW936qlY

In The Sandbox Metaverse, Pretty Much Everything (Including The Limited Parcels of Land) is an NFT

During the NFT.NYC 2024 Conference in New York City, BlockchainJournal.com editor-in-chief David Berlind interviewed Jonathan G. Blanco, CEO and founder of Niftmint. The two discussed the evolution of his company and the challenges facing enterprises in the realm of tokenization. According to Blanco, Niftmint's namesake service is a blockchain-based tokenization platform that, among other things, allows organizations to offer digital versions or "twins" of their physical products to customers in a way that seamlessly integrates into existing non-blockchain e-commerce platforms. NFT-based strategies that involve this sort of "digital twinning" are referred to as "phygital" strategies.

One key feature of the platform that could appeal to businesses is that brands and customers do not have to transact with one another using cryptocurrencies in a way that's typical of many blockchain-based solutions. While Niftmint manages the crypto-specific nuances of using blockchain in the background, organizations and customers can transact with one another using fiat currency like the US dollar.

In the interview, Blanco explains the use case for tokenization of real-world assets (RWAs), particularly in the context of luxury brands like high fashion manufacturers. He explains how brands can offer customers NFT-based digital twins of the physical items they buy, thereby enhancing the consumer's overall brand experience and potentially mitigating issues like counterfeit products where the digital twin can serve as a blockchain-based (and therefore cryptographically secured) Certificate of Authenticity. But certificates of authenticity are simply one advantage of pairing individual NFTs with their real world counterparts. As Blanco explains, once a physical product is paired with something like an NFT that's programmable, all sorts of new experiences and business process efficiencies can be tied to that inventory item in a way that benefits manufacturers, marketers, consumers, and other product ecosystem stakeholders (wholesalers, retailers, etc). 

Blanco was a speaker at NFT.NYC, and in his presentation, he argued that current trends in artificial intelligence are driving a significant amount of distrust in the provenance of content and physical goods and that blockchain-based tokenization of both is the most obvious solution. As a result of AI, Blanco predicts a future where consumers will shift their spending to only those physical and digital products that involve a digital guarantee of provenance.

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/risks-posed-ai-could-drive-consumer-demand-blockchaintokenized-physical-and-digital-wares

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j_BEGXQU6xI

Risks Posed by AI Could Drive Consumer Demand for Blockchain-Tokenized Physical and Digital Wares

Keith Miller, a partner at the Perkins Coie law firm, joins BlockchainJournal.com editor-in-chief David Berlind on the Blockchain Journal podcast during the NFT.NYC conference in New York City. As law firms go, Perkins Coie is well-known for its expertise in technology and has been involved in blockchain since 2012. During the interview, Miller recounts his journey into the space, representing early exchanges and navigating major crypto cases involving the SEC, such as Library (LBRY) and Ripple. But the conversation quickly turns to the current day environment where American businesses are hesitant to move forward with their blockchain plans so long as there's a chance they could end up on the wrong side of a law that hasn't even been written yet.

Today, Miller and other members of the Perkins Coie team help the law firm's clients figure out how to move forward with their blockchain innovations, given the significant regulatory uncertainty in the United States. While some states have passed blockchain-specific laws, the US Congress has made virtually no headway in terms of drafting such laws at the Federal level. This situation leaves government agencies such as the SEC, the CFTC, and the IRS to rely on existing laws (laws that were drafted before blockchain existed) to guide their regulatory activities when it comes to blockchain and cryptocurrency. Against the backdrop of that lack of regulatory clarity, Miller discusses the challenges facing organizations in the evolving crypto landscape and advises organizations against the idea of engaging in projects solely for fast profits. Highlighting recent cases involving NFTs, Miller stressed the need for organizations to develop a clearly articulated business purpose for their NFT ventures (implying that making a quick buck off primary market sales of NFTs is likely to attract the attention of regulators looking to carry out their next enforcement). 

The conversation delves into the role of the SEC in fostering innovation amidst its primary objectives of investor protection, capital formation, and market integrity. Miller suggests that regulatory clarity is necessary for innovation to thrive, expressing skepticism about imminent changes from the SEC without Congressional intervention. The current highly tribalistic political divide is further complicating the regulatory landscape, potentially hindering progress when it comes to blockchain legislation. And, so long as the laws are slow in coming, organizations would be remiss not to seek the input of legal experts to help them strike the right balance between blockchain innovation and federal enforcement trends.

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/given-regulatory-uncertainties-businesses-should-seek-experienced-legal-input-blockchain

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XST_RfApG1Q

Given Regulatory Uncertainties, Businesses Should Seek Experienced Legal Input on Blockchain Plans

From the NFT.NYC 2024 conference, BlockchainJournal.com editor-in-chief David Berlind checks in with Unstoppable Domains COO Sandy Carter to learn about the unique value proposition of Web3 domains over the plain old internet domains that most Web users and internet destinations are familiar with. Unstoppable Domains is both an internet registry and an internet registrar. According to Carter, perhaps the biggest and most noticeable change from legacy domains to Web3 domains is that legacy domains are essentially for rent. They must be renewed by the registrant on a periodic basis. Meanwhile, Web3 domains are owned. But, according to Carter, there are additional advantages to Web3 domains over their legacy counterparts

Another major challenge associated with legacy domains acquired through legacy registrars is how the internet domain itself (i.e., abc.com) cannot verifiably represent anything about the individual or organization that owns the domain. For example, whereas a Web3 domain can behave as a digital proxy for an entity's identity, credentials, education, personal or organizational profiles, and other information that might be useful to the automation of certain business processes, legacy domains have no such inherent capability.  

Referring to how today's social networks are often the repositories of this personal and organizational information, Carter refers to this capability to associate that data directly with an internet domain the "LinkedIn for Web3." However, whereas most entity-specific data that are kept with a social network is discoverable based on a user's global security settings (ie, "friends only"), the different types of identifiable information associated with a Web3 domain can be individually and optionally shared in an infinite number of specific (and non-global) contexts.

To watch the video version of this podcast or read its full-text transcript, go to:
https://blockchainjournal.com/interview/blockchainbased-internet-domains-are-linkedin-web3-says-unstoppable-coo-sandy-carter

The video can also be watched on Blockchain Journal's YouTube Channel at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LV1A0CZOYXA

Blockchain-Based Internet Domains Are the "LinkedIn of Web3" Says Unstoppable COO Sandy Carter

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Why LayerZero Is A Contender For Enterprises In Need Of Cross-Chain Bridges

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