Hawaiian Crow (Corvus hawaiiensis)



Citation: Bob Planqué, XC37649. Accessible at www.xeno-canto.org/37649.
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/


Key Facts
Current IUCN Red List category: Extinct in the Wild
Family: Corvidae (Crows and Jays)
Population size: 102 individuals
Population trend: Increasing
Distribution: Hawaii (USA)

Threats
It has suffered from extensive habitat alteration, particularly reduction of understory food-plants as a result of the activities of feral ungulates, logging, agriculture and the loss of pollinators and dispersers (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). Problematic ungulates include feral cattle, mouflon sheep, feral sheep and goats (J. Burgett in litt. 2007). The impact of shooting has probably been substantial, even in recent decades. In the late 19th Century, the species was persecuted as a pest, and it became unpopular with pig hunters for alerting animals to their presence (Faike 2006). The species was confiding and easily attracted by imitated calls, making it an easy target (Faike 2006). During breeding the species is sensitive to human disturbance (Faike 2006), including nest-monitoring operations (Banko et al. 2002, Walters 2006). Other documented threats include predation by introduced rats, the small Asian mongoose Herpestes javanicus and the native Hawaiian Hawk Buteo solitarius (classified as Near Threatened), as well as avian malaria and pox carried by introduced mosquitoes (Maxfield 1998) and Toxoplasma gondii carried by feral cats (Banko et al. 2002, J. Burgett in litt. 2007, Banko 2009, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). Feral cats are ubiquitous in the species's habitat and are also potential predators (J. Burgett in litt. 2007). Fledged chicks remain near the ground for several days before they can fly properly and are at particular risk from predation (Faike 2006, Banko et al. 2002). Captive-reared birds have suffered from disease, with at least one dying from a bacterial infection, and diseases may have made others more vulnerable to predation (Maxfield 1998, Banko et al. 2002, Banko 2009, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). The captive population is inbred (Faike 2006, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009), and this may be reducing reproductive success. West Nile Virus, which could potentially be introduced by migrating shorebirds and waterfowl or commercial transport, and is spread by mosquitoes (Faike 2006), could threaten reintroduction efforts in the future. West Nile Virus is presumed to be highly lethal in C. hawaiiensis, owing to a reduction in the population of the American Crow C. brachyrhynchos in mainland North America by 45% over eight years due to the virus (J. Burgett in litt. 2007). 

Conservation actions underway
Between 1993 and 2007, over 90 birds were hatched in the captive breeding programme (Lieberman and Kuehler 2009). Captive-raised individuals were released into lightly-managed habitat and monitored (Kuehler et al. 1994, Lieberman 1997, Banko 2009), but releases were stopped after January 1999 due to increasing mortality (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). About 75 birds need to be maintained in the captive flock for future reintroduction attempts to take place (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). In 2011, the captive population stood at 94 individuals, including 39 birds used as breeders (Switzer 2011). Introduced mammalian predators were trapped in the Kona Forest Unit and, although this no longer takes place, predators will be managed at any future reintroduction sites (J. Burgett in litt. 2007). Some areas of its former range are now fenced and free of feral ungulates, and the exclusion of ungulates will be extended into other areas (J. Burgett in litt. 2007). Relocation of problematic B. solitarius failed because the birds homed back from over 32 km (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). Two reintroduction sites have now been identified (Nelson in litt. 2012). The first, and smaller, site is now largely fenced and ungulate-free and contains good habitat and food conditions. The second, larger site requires fencing, ungulate removal, and habitat restoration. Reintroduction at the smaller site could begin as early as 2014 depending on acquisition of funding needed for small predator removal, hack tower construction, and personnel to release and monitor the birds (Nelson in litt. 2012). A recovery plan was prepared in 1982 and revised in 2009, outlining recovery actions including expanding the captive propagation to minimize loss of genetic diversity, protecting suitable habitat and managing threats to the species, establishing new populations in managed habitat, establishing a program to increase public support, and continuing research and adaptive management practices for species recovery (USFWS 2009). Each year, around 2,000 school children and students attend the environmental education programme and see C. hawaiiensis in captivity at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Centre (Faike 2006).

Conservation actions proposed
Restore and manage a significant proportion of remaining habitat within the species's historical range. Deal creatively with the problem posed by B. solitarius (Maxfield 1998, P. Baker in litt. 1999, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2009). Reintroduce birds to habitat managed to reduce major threats. Exclude ungulates from more areas of habitat. Control potential predators and vectors of disease in the species's former range.

Further details available on http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=5793


Hawaiian Crow (Corvus Hawaiiensis)

Hyacinth Macaw (Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus)



Citation: Jeremy Minns, XC84864. Accessible at www.xeno-canto.org/84864
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/


Key Facts
Current IUCN Red List category: Endangered
Family: Psittacidae (Parrots)
Population size: 4300 mature individuals
Population trend: Decreasing
Distribution: Brazil, Bolivia and Paraguay

Threats
There has been massive illegal trade in the species. At least 10,000 birds were taken from the wild in the 1980s, with 50% destined for the Brazilian market (Mittermeier et al. 1990). In 1983-1984, over 2,500 were flown out of Bahía Negra, Paraguay, with an additional 600 in the late 1980s (J. Pryor in litt. 1998). Although these numbers are now much reduced, illegal trade still continues (e.g. 10 passed through a pet market in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, between August 2004-July 2005, where birds were changing hands for US$ 1,000 and were destined for Peru [Herrera and Hennessey 2007]). There is some local hunting for food and feathers. In Amazonia, there has been habitat loss for cattle-ranching and hydroelectric power schemes on the rios Tocantins and Xingu. In the Pantanal, only 5% of S. apetala trees have suitable cavities (Guedes 1993, Johnson 1996). Young trees are foraged by cattle and burnt by frequent fires (Newton 1994). The Gerais is being rapidly converted to mechanised agriculture, cattle-ranching and exotic tree plantations (Conservation International 1999). 

Conservation actions underway
CITES Appendix I and II, protected under Brazilian and Bolivian law and banned from export in all countries of origin. Many ranch-owners in the Pantanal (and increasingly in the Gerais) no longer permit trappers on their properties. There are several long-term studies and conservation initiatives (eg. Anon 2004). At the Caiman Ecological Refuge in the Pantanal the Hyacinth Macaw Project has used artificial nests and chick management techniques and raised awareness among cattle ranchers (Anon 2004). 

Conservation actions proposed
Study the current range, population status and extent of trading in the different parts of its range (Snyder et al. 2000). Assess the effectiveness of artificial nest-boxes (Snyder et al. 2000). Enforce legal measures preventing trade. Experiment with ecotourism at one or two sites to encourage donors (Snyder et al. 2000).

Further details available on http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=1543


Hyacinth Macaw

Ivory Billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis)



Citation: Allen T. Chartier, XC8812. Accessible at www.xeno-canto.org/8812.
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/


Key Facts
Current IUCN Red List category: Critically Endangered
Family: Picadae (Woodpeckers)
Population size: 1-49 mature individuals
Population trend: Decreasing
Distribution: USA, Cuba

Threats
Logging and clearance for agriculture are responsible for the dramatic decline in numbers and range. These factors are likely to threaten any remaining population. Hunting has also been implicated in the rapid population decline, and it has been proposed that this was the primary cause of its decline, with habitat destruction playing a secondary role, but this theory is contentious (Snyder 2007, Hill 2008, M. Lammertink in litt. 2012). 

Conservation actions underway
After the reported rediscovery in February 2004, intensive surveys involving dozens of observers, automatic cameras and recording equipment have been carried out in the Big Woods area (Fitzpatrick et al. 2005). Searches have also continued in other parts of the south-east U.S.A. that have historic records of the species, with specific searches taking place in 28 locations across that area in 2004-2009 (Hill et al. 2006, Rohrbaugh et al. 2007, M. Lammertink in litt. 2012). An endangered species recovery team of c.50 members has been appointed (Jackson 2006). By early 2010, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) had spent $14 million on efforts to document and protect the species, including through habitat protection and acquisition (M. Lammertink in litt. 2012). In October 2009, the search for the species in the U.S.A. was suspended because the most promising areas, including most of Arkansas's Big Woods, had already been surveyed to some extent (Dalton 2010, M. Lammertink in litt. 2012). USFWS was published a recovery plan in April 2010 (Dalton 2010, USFWS 2010). Part of the Big Woods area falls within the Cache River and White River national wildlife refuges. In Cuba there have been a number of searches for the species, and further searches were planned for 2010 and 2011 (BirdLife International unpubl. data). 

Conservation actions proposed
Evaluate new reports of the species and follow up with searches in cases of credible reports in the U.S.A. and Cuba (M. Lammertink in litt. 2012), to document the species's continued existence and determine its population size and distribution. Ensure strict protection of any nests and nesting trees, if found. Ensure the implementation of appropriate protective measures if a population is found in Cuba. Engage birdwatchers in the search for the woodpecker and raise awareness about the importance of reporting and documenting any sightings.

Further details available on www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=719


Ivory Billed Woodpecker

Kokako (Callaeas cinereus)



Citation: Patrik Åberg, XC33752. Accessible at www.xeno-canto.org/33752.
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/


Key Facts
Current IUCN Red List category: Endangered
Family: Callaeatidae (Wattled Crows)
Population size: 1000 mature individuals
Population trend: Increasing
Distribution: New Zealand

Threats
The historical decline was due to large-scale habitat destruction, fragmentation and the introduction of predators and competitors. Predation of eggs and chicks by black rats Rattus rattus and brush-tailed possums Trichosurus vulpecula is the main cause of nest failure, whereas deaths to nesting adult females were caused by stoats Mustela erminea (Flux et al. 2006). These introduced predators are currently the primary threat to the species. At Mapara Wildlife Management Reserve, just 8% of nesting attempts successfully fledged young in the absence of predator control, versus 61% when predators were intensively trapped (Flux et al. 2006). T. vulpecula also competes for many preferred food items, and introduced goats and deer destroy favoured understorey food-plants (Innes et al. 1999). Historical forest destruction for logging has also been important, especially as the species is thought to require fairly large tracts of forest. These two threats were largely contemporaneous and so their relative importance is not completely clear (Rasch 1991).

Conservation actions underway
Most of the remaining habitat is protected and almost all key subpopulations are managed for the control of R. rattus and T. vulpecula. Recent research shows that "pulsing" poison bait delivery (at least three managed years every 10) is likely to be the most effective way of dealing with the predator threat once managed populations have reached a certain size (Bassé et al. 2003). Birds have been introduced to four islands (Heather and Robertson 1997). Young females have also been introduced to two managed remnant male/predominantly male populations on the mainland (I. A. Flux in litt. 1999), and several new populations (in areas of their previous range) have been established through translocation of adults to sites at which predators are controlled. Two small captive populations are held (Heather and Robertson 1997). Populations are encouraged to stay in protected areas using playback of their calls, attracting individuals to key areas (Anon. 2008). Genetic research has been undertaken to ensure sufficient genetic diversity in each subpopulation (Bain 2008).

Conservation actions proposed
Improve the understanding of the Te Urewera population, and modify management developed in smaller forest blocks, to assist large-scale protection and enhancement. Develop sustainable long-term management practices by research and mathematical modeling, and implement them. Reintroduce birds to newly-managed forest areas (I. A. Flux in litt. 1999).

Further details available on http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=6258


Kokako

Palila (Loxioides bailleui)



Citation: Daniel Lane, XC27357. Accessible at www.xeno-canto.org/27357
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/


Key Facts
Current IUCN Red List category: Critically Endangered
Family: Fringillidae (Finches and Hawaiian Honeycreepers)
Population size: 250-999 mature individuals
Population trend: Decreasing
Distribution: Hawaii (USA)

Threats
The most significant declines in this species's range and population are thought to have been caused by human-induced habitat loss and degradation and predation by introduced rats prior to Western settlement (C. Farmer in litt. 2007). The subalpine forest habitat of this species has been severely overbrowsed by feral and domestic ungulates, and nests and adults are preyed upon primarily by feral cats but also by introduced black rats Rattus rattus, Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus, and rarely Hawaiian Hawk Buteo solitarius (C. Farmer in litt. 2007, P. Banko in litt. 2012). Up to 11% of nests are depredated by feral cats each year (Hess and Banko 2006). Grazing by cattle was a historical factor in the species's decline, although cattle are now limited to pastures that are unsuitable for L. bailleui (C. Farmer in litt. 2007). Alien grass cover is high in much of the species's range (Banko 2006), suppressing mamane regeneration and potentially increasing the threat of fire. Increasing human activities, such as military training, could further increase the chances of fire (C. Farmer in litt. 2007). In 2006-2007, there were numerous fires on and near Mauna Kea, and fires in August and September 2010 affected c.560 ha of suitable habitat on the southern slope of the mountain (American Bird Conservancy 2010). A fire in the species's core area could potentially affect 50-90% of the population. The recent opening of trails for all-terrain vehicles in the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve is a concern (C. Farmer in litt. 2007), and may cause disturbance and habitat degradation. Continuing threats include grazing by feral sheep, wild sheep Ovis gmelini musimon, and their hybrids, which slows mamane regeneration (Pratt et al. 1997, Banko 2006, C. Farmer in litt. 2007), and alien insects preying on and parasitising native insects (Pratt et al. 1997, Banko 2006), particularly at low elevations (Banko 2006). Native caterpillars are an important source of protein for nestlings, and possibly breeding females; however, they are preyed upon by yellow-jacket wasps Vespula pensylvanica and several ant species, particularly Argentine ants Linepithema humile, whilst parasitoid wasps kill the caterpillars by laying their eggs on or inside them (Banko 2006). In addition to the aforementioned threats, this species's very restricted range means it could be extirpated by extreme events such as drought and storms (Banko 2006), and drought is thought to be contributing to the species's recent decline (C. Farmer in litt. 2007). Demographic patterns of mamane mortality are under investigation, as mamane may be under threat from pathogens (USFWS 2003). Climate change may pose a long-term future threat to the species, as drought frequency and intensity are expected to increase at higher elevations (Benning et al. 2002, Giambelluca and Luke 2007). 

Conservation actions underway
The species's population has been monitored since 1980 (Banko 2006). In 1979, 1987 and 1998, federal courts ordered the eradication of feral goats and feral and wild sheep species from the species's habitat on Mauna Kea, and these rulings have remained in effect despite six legal challenges (Banko 2006, P. Banko in litt. 2007, Banko et al. 2009). Forest regeneration has improved as a result, although current efforts to reduce sheep have not been sufficient to allow the complete recovery of mamane forests (Banko 2006). Despite such efforts, the species's strong site-tenacity might prevent recolonisation of areas of recovered forest. In 1993, some birds were translocated to a new site where predators were controlled and, although many homed back to their capture site, at least two pairs stayed and bred successfully (Fancy et al. 1997). Six additional translocations have taken place since, and by the end of 2006, 188 wild birds had been translocated from the western to the northern slope of Mauna Kea (C. Farmer in litt. 2007). Approximately 34% persisted for longer than two months, and a small colony of up to c.23 birds remained on the northern slope and bred successfully until 2010. Although F2 generation offspring were observed, the colony was not sustainable without additional management (Banko et al. 2009) and it was extirpated by 2011 (P. Banko in litt. 2012). Egg-laying occurred in 2004, and independent juveniles were produced in every year from 2005-2007 (C. Farmer in litt. 2007). This translocation programme has been aided by a captive breeding programme initiated at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center in 1996 (USFWS 2003, Banko 2006). Of 28 captive-reared birds released in 2003-2009, at least 10 persisted in the reintroduction area for at least one year, with 2 males breeding with translocated wild females in the north slope colony before its extipration (C. Farmer in litt. 2007, P. Banko in litt. 2012). The construction of a highway through unoccupied, federally designated critical habitat was approved in 1999. A mitigation plan accompanied the development, including the suspension of cattle grazing in pastures adjacent to the species's range. The species's conservation is the subject of detailed research, and funding from the mitigation plan supported translocation research and enabled the expansion or continuation of studies into the species's ecology and limiting factors, mamane ecology, food availability, predator ecology and management, and fire ecology. Habitat restoration and research into restoration methods are on-going (D. Leonard in litt. 2007). Work is being carried out to restore habitat by controlling fountain grass Pennisetum setaceum, which increases the frequency and intensity of fires, and Cape ivy Delairea odorata, which reduces the vigour of native trees (American Bird Conservancy 2010). Hawaii State and federal agencies have begun programmes to control cats and rats (Pratt et al. 1997, E. VanderWerf in litt. 1999). Reforestation is also taking place on the northern slope of Mauna Kea (American Bird Conservancy 2010). Goats have been virtually removed from the mountain (C. Farmer in litt. 2007), and the plan to build an 87-km-long fence enclosing all of Palila's critical habitat to prevent the ingress of sheep and goats has been completed (G. Wallace in litt. 2009, American Bird Conservancy 2010). The fence is c.2 m high and encloses c.94 % of the species's habitat. In 2010, a comprehensive fire management plan was being developed for the Mauna Kea area (American Bird Conservancy 2010). 

Conservation actions proposed
Establish protocols and make preparations to control fire (Pratt et al. 1997). Intensify control of mammalian predators (especially feral cats) and grazing ungulates (Pratt et al. 1997, H. Baker and P. Baker in litt. 1999, T. Pratt in litt. 1999, P. Banko in litt. 2007). Continue to expand the application of translocations and captive propagation for introducing the species to currently unoccupied sites within the former range (Pratt et al. 1997, C. Farmer in litt. 2007). Reforest areas adjacent to the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve and areas where alien grasses and grazing threaten mamane (Pratt et al. 1997). Carry out forest restoration research to find ways to accelerate the rehabilitation and regeneration of mamane trees within the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve. Remove and fence out ungulates from all critical habitat and the mitigation parcels (Banko 2006, C. Farmer in litt. 2007). Continue to restore forest above Hakalau Wildlife Refuge (Benning et al. 2002).

Further details available on http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=8901


Palila

Whooping Crane (Grus americana)



Citation: Texas Parks and Wildlife.  Accessible at www.youtube.com/watch?v=BeNfRdpfZVU&feature=plcp
License: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/


Key Facts
Current IUCN Red List category: Endangered
Family: Gruidae (Cranes)
Population size: 50-249 mature individuals
Population trend: Increasing
Distribution: Canada, USA

Threats
Over-hunting, habitat conversion and human disturbance were the main causes of the species's decline. Currently, the most significant known cause of death or injury to fledglings is collision with powerlines (Lewis 1997). Powerline markers can reduce collisions by 50-80% (T Stehn and T. Wassenich in press), but most powerlines remain unmarked and collision is a major and growing problem (Lewis 1997). The anticipated placement of thousands of wind turbines in the migration corridor will decrease availability of crane stopover habitat and may also dramatically increase the number of powerlines (T. Stehn, in litt. 2007). In 2007, a lightning strike during severe weather killed 17 captive-bred young birds being housed in a top-netted release pen in Florida (T. Stehn, in litt. 2007). Eggs and pre-fledged chicks are subject to predation by various birds and mammals including raven, bald eagle, wolf, black bear and lynx (CWS and USFWS 2007). Drought is a serious threat to the species as it is detrimental to all habitats utilized year around, but is especially harmful by dramatically decreasing production on the nesting grounds (RENEW report 1999). In early 2009, a prolonged drought and reduced water inflow to coastal wetlands led to a reduction in availability of blue crabs Callinectes sapidus and wolfberries Lycium spp. (important food items), causing Whooping Crane mortality rates to double (Archibold 2009). Coastal development, sea level rise, climate change, chemical spills, reduced fresh water inflows, and human disturbance threaten the Texan wintering grounds (RENEW report 1999, CWS and USFWS 2007). Aransas National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) can only support a maximum of 500 birds through the winter (T. Stehn, in litt. 2007) and falls short of the initial downlisting target of 1,000 birds. Continued population growth may force some cranes in future to use disturbed and suboptimal habitat (M. Reid. in litt. 2003). Much of the currently unoccupied crane habitat at Aransas where the cranes would be expected to expand into is being threatened with construction of houses (T. Stehn, in litt. 2007). There are currently concerns about oil spills and river inflows to Aransas NWR (CWS and USFWS 2007), as well as reduced water flows in the central Platte River Ralley, Nebraska, a key stopover site for migrating Whooping Cranes (Chavez-Ramirez 2008). The spread of West Nile virus and avian influenza in the future may pose a threat to the species (Chu et al. 2003). The long-term effects of genetic drift after a severe population bottleneck are unknown (Glenn et al. 1999) There have been incidences of illegal shooting of the species in Alabama and Indiana (MacKenzie 2011, Shaw 2011).


Conservation actions underway
CITES Appendix I and II. CMS Appendix II. There is an international recovery plan (CWS and USFWS 2007) focusing on increasing the size of the natural flock, establishing additional wild populations through experimental releases, teaching captive-bred birds to migrate (Lewis 1995, Line 1995, RENEW report 1999), and increasing the captive population for experimental releases and ecological research (e.g. habitat selection). Considerable progress has been made in improving the genetic health of captive stock and in breeding under-represented genetic strains, but delayed reproduction in captivity and the failure of some pairs to breed at all has slowed down progress (Putman 2007). In the past, recruitment was increased in certain years in Canada by removal of a single egg from two-egg broods (Boyce et al. 2005); the removed eggs are used to supplement captive flocks, but the overall impact of the egg pickup program is largely undetermined (CWS and USFWS 2007). An eastern migratory population which mostly winters in Florida and summers in Wisconsin has now been established but only two instances of successful breeding has been recorded so far (J.Hook in litt. 2007, Garland and Peterson 2009). If passed, the Crane Conservation Act (H.R. 1771 and S. 1048) would allocate $5 million per year over five years to be spent on crane conservation efforts world-wide, with strict limitations on the amount going to help Whooping Cranes. Due to the loss of 17 captive-bred cranes in a severe storm in 2007, the ultralight-led juveniles from Necedah NWR are now split into two wintering groups, with half spending the winter at Chassahowitzka NWR and half at the St. Marks NWR along Florida's Gulf Coast.

Conservation actions proposed
Survey and monitor breeding grounds to determine nesting effort (RENEW report 1999), and the wintering grounds to determine flock size. Research food resources and high mortality (RENEW report 1999). Alleviate threats in Texas. Reduce powerline collisions. Continue establishment of two further self-sustaining populations (Meine and Archibald 1996, RENEW report 1999). Continue raising cranes for reintroduction (RENEW report 1999).

Further details available on http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=2796


Ghosts of Gone Birds

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