Over centuries “information has shaped and been shaped by human society”, writes professor Paul Duguid at the start of the book “Information: A Historical Companion”. Duguid is one of the editors of this book that reconstructs the rise of human approaches to creating, managing, and sharing facts and knowledge. The book is organised as thirteen long form chapters and more than hundred short form entries in a list of thematic objects, tools and concepts that are critical for our understanding of information. Each long-form chapter discusses the role of information at an important point in time in the history, at a particular geographical setting. Written by an international team of experts, “Information: A Historical Companion” is a wide-ranging, deeply immersive and a large publication. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps I speak with Paul Duguid, a professor in the School of Information at the University of California, Berkeley and one of the editors of this book. 

We start our discussion by exploring the concept of “information age” and addressing the question: has every age been an information age or is this title unique to this present time. We then discuss the significance of viewing history through the lens of information and viewing information through the lens of history. We also discuss our over reliance on information in the present time and the impact of increased volume and velocity of misinformation and disinformation on society. Professor Paul Duguid then discusses few entries in the list of thematic objects, concepts and tools. This has been a fascinating discussion, particularly for those who are keen to study our obsession with an informed existence. 

Complement this podcast with the fascinating discussion with Professor Luciano Floridi on the Philosophy of Information and then listen to Professor Jürgen Renn on the Evolution of Knowledge and Rethinking Science for The Anthropocene available on Bridging the Gaps.

For more in-depth discussions with researchers and thought leaders, reach us at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/ 
https://soundcloud.com/bridging-the-gaps

History of Information with Professor Paul Duguid

What is time? Is time real or just an illusion? Time is an enigma, a mystery that never ceases to perplex us. Philosophers, poets, painters and thinkers have long debated its significance, while scientists have discovered that its structure differs from our intuitive understanding of it. Our view of time has changed dramatically throughout the years, from Boltzmann to quantum theory, and from Einstein to loop quantum gravity.  In the huge cosmos, time moves at various speeds in different places, the past and future differ considerably less than we might assume, and the whole concept of the present vanishes. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps I discuss with Dr Carlo Rovelli the nature of time, the nature of space, and the fundamental nature of reality through the lens of quantum mechanics.

Carlo Rovelli is professor of physics at Aix-Marseille University, where he is director of the quantum gravity group at the Center for Theoretical Physics. He is one of the founders of loop quantum gravity theory and is one of the world’s biggest experts in this field. 


In his books and in his presentations Rovelli says time is not what we think it is. He also says that space is not what we think it is. I open our conversation by asking him to unpack these statements for us.  We then discuss the “impossibility of now”. In physics, from one moment to the next, the only concept that gives some notion of continuity is the flow of heat; it is the concept of entropy. We discuss how entropy plays an important role in this perceived continuity.  Along the way we touch upon the concepts of past, present and future that we hold in our minds. Dr Rovelli’s new book, Helgoland begins with a detailed description of the development of quantum theory in 1925; we discuss the main observations and discoveries that led to the development of quantum theory. We then discuss the fundamental nature of reality by unpacking the statement in one of his books “if the backdrop of space has disappeared, time has disappeared, classic particles have disappeared, along with the class fields, so then what is the world made of?” And finally we discuss the efforts to develop models and theories to reconcile general relativity with quantum theory. We discuss how loop quantum gravity theory attempts to reconcile general relativity with quantum theory. 

For more in-depth Bridging the Gaps discussions with researchers and thought leaders, check out: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/ 
https://soundcloud.com/bridging-the-gaps


Complement this conversion with fascinating discussion with Dr Katie Mack available at: https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2020/08/the-end-of-everything-astrophysically-speaking-with-dr-katie-mack/

And then list to Dr Dan Hooper at: https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2020/09/at-the-edge-of-time-dr-dan-hooper/

Time, Space and Nature of Reality through the Lens of Quantum Theory with Dr Carlo Rovelli

Recent developments in the field of Artificial Intelligence are fascinating as well as terrifying; there are extravagant promises as well as frustrating setbacks; there is great progress in narrowly focused AI applications, and there is lack of progress in the field of Artificial General Intelligence. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps I speak with professor Melanie Mitchell and we discuss the history, recent successes, huge expectations and emerging fears and frustrations in the field of Artificial Intelligence. We discuss fascinating and intriguing research that professor Melanie Mitchell discusses in her book "Artificial Intelligence: A Guide for Thinking Humans".

Melanie Mitchell is a professor of complexity at the Santa Fe Institute in New Mexico. Her research focuses on genetic algorithms, conceptual abstraction, analogy-making and visual recognition in Artificial Intelligence Systems. Professor Mitchell originated the Santa Fe Institute's Complexity Explorer project, an online learning resource for complex systems. 

We begin our discussion by reviewing the history of this fascinating field and by discussing initial claims and hype that emerged at the start. We then discuss the transition from rule-based AI systems to machine learning approaches. We look into the successes of AI in narrowly defined task-based systems; we discuss the anomalies that emerge when the data is mildly changed. We then discuss the future development in this field and the challenges involved in making any meaningful progress towards Artificial General Intelligence and creating common sense in AI systems. The challenge of creating common sense seems similar to the challenge of finding and understanding dark matter in the field of physics, we discuss this. We look into the profound disconnect between the continuing hype and the actual achievements in AI,  what the field has accomplished and how much further it has to go. We also discuss the approach of conceptual abstraction and incorporating analogy-making in AI systems. This has been a fascinating discussion about this ambitious and thought-provoking field.

Complement this discussion with Artificial Intelligence: Fascinating Opportunities and Emerging Challenges with Professor Bart Selman available at: https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2020/08/artificial-intelligence-with-bart-selman/

And then listen to “2062: The World That AI Made” with Professor Toby Walsh available at: https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2019/04/2062-the-world-that-ai-made-with-professor-toby-walsh/

"Artificial Intelligence: A Guide for Thinking Humans" with Professor Melanie Mitchell

Can living scientifically empower us to navigate the complexities of today’s complex and unpredictable world? Can the joy of critical thinking and the effectiveness of the scientific method assist us in making better decisions? Can living a more rational life help us navigate modern life more confidently? In his new book “The Joy of Science” acclaimed physicist Jim Al-Khalili invites readers to engage with the world as scientists have been trained to do. He shows how the fundamental principles at the heart of scientific thinking, as well as the scientific process, are profoundly relevant to the perplexing times we live in and the tough choices we make.  In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with professor Jim Al-Khalili and we thoroughly discuss very interesting and deeply intriguing ideas that he presents in this book.  

Professor Jim Al-Khalili is a theoretical physicist at the University of Surrey where he holds a Distinguished Chair in physics as well as a university chair in the public engagement in science. He is a prominent author, broadcaster and one of Britain’s best-known science communicators.  

I start our discussion with the question that how the discipline of science should be perceived. We acknowledge that there are many ways scientific work is carried out in many different disciplines. We discuss the issue of “relative truth” and how biases held by individuals impact their opinions and distort their view and lead them to their own version of truth. We explore how science deals with the issue of relative truth. We probe how the scientific method enables us to continue researching in the presence of uncertainty. We investigate the impact of misinformation and disinformation on the disciple and cause of science. We also touch upon how rational humans can become; can we think rationally only up to certain point. We discuss in detail how scientific information should be presented to policy makers that should enable and empower them to make better decisions and to make the right choices. Finally, I ask Professor Jim Al-Khalili to tell us about his research in the field of open quantum systems.  This has been a fantastic discussion.  

Complement this with “Asking Better Questions for Creative Problem Solving, Innovation and Effective Leadership with Hal Gregersen” available at: https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/02/asking-better-questions-for-creative-problem-solving-innovation-and-effective-leadership-with-hal-gregersen/ 

And then listen to “On Public Communication of Science and Technology with Professor Bruce Lewenstein” available at: https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/02/on-public-communication-of-science-and-technology-with-professor-bruce-lewenstein/

"The Joy of Science" with Professor Jim Al-Khalili

What is the true nature of reality? Does the objective reality reported back by our senses paint a complete picture of the true reality? Is it possible that the world we see is not objective reality and it is just an interface to a deeper, true reality.  In his book “The Case Against Reality: Why Evolution Hid the Truth from Our Eyes” cognitive scientist Donald Hoffman Challenges leading scientific theories that claim that our senses report back objective reality. He argues that while we should take our perceptions seriously, we should not take them literally. He presents the evolutionary concept of "Fitness Beats Truth" to demonstrate that evolution very probably moulded our minds for fitness rather than accuracy, resulting in the mismatch between "things-in-themselves" and our perceptions of them. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps I speak with professor Donal Hoffman;   we discuss his “Interface Theory of Perception” and dig deep on latest research in cognitive science and perception, and how it relates to our understanding of the true nature of reality. 

Donald Hoffman is a professor of Cognitive Sciences at the University of California, Irvine.  He is a cognitive psychologist and popular science author. His research focuses on perception, evolution, and consciousness.

We begin by discussing the present understanding of the hard problem of consciousness. Then we talk about Hoffman’s view that all main scientific theories, such as Einstein's theory, theories and our present understanding of Quantum Physics and the theory of natural selection, all inform us that our present approach of trying to understand reality is not working. I then ask him that why in his view we have evolved in a manner that we don’t see the real underlying reality and we just perceive a superficial realty. We then discuss in detail his theory and ideas about the nature of reality. We touch upon the question that do we live in a simulation. We also discuss  Panpsychism. Finally I ask that how the research on the question of the true nature of reality should proceed. 

Complement this discussion with “From Consciousness to Synthetic Consciousness: From One Unknown to Another Unknown with David Chalmers” available at: https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2015/03/from-consciousness-to-synthetic-consciousness-from-one-unknown-to-another-unknown-with-david-chalmers/

And then listen to “Why You Are Not Your Brain? A Conversation on Consciousness with Alva Noe” available at: https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2017/04/why-you-are-not-your-brain-a-conversation-with-alva-noe/

“The Case Against Reality” and The Hard Problem of Consciousness with Professor Donald Hoffman

A single fertilised egg generates an embryo. Different cell types in this embryo develop into various organs of a new human being, including a new human brain. Everything starts with a single fertilised egg, and in the embryo, some embryonic cells develop into neural stem cells that construct the brain. By the time a baby is born, its brain is already made up of billions of precisely designed neurons that are connected by trillions of synapses to form a small, compact but incredibly powerful supercomputer. In his recent book “Zero to Birth: How the Human Brain Is Built” pioneering experimental neurobiologist professor William Harris takes the reader on an incredible journey to the very edge of creation, from the moment an egg is fertilised to every stage of a human brain's development in the womb — and even a bit beyond. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Professor William Harris the process of how the brain is built.


William Harris is professor emeritus of anatomy at the University of Cambridge. He is the coauthor of Development of the Nervous System and Genetic Neurobiology and the co-editor of Retinal Development. He is a fellow of the Royal Society. 

We begin by examining the evolutionary history of the brain, which spans billions of years and in the Proterozoic eon, when multicellular animals first descended from single-celled organisms, and then we discuss how the development of a fetal brain over the course of nine months reflects the brain's evolution through the ages. We discuss the emergence of first neural stem cells and how the formation of the neural plate and then its progress to the neural tube give the first glimpses of the development of the brain in an embryo. We discuss in detail how cells divide and create neural stem cells and then how these stem cells start producing neurons. A fascinating topic that we then cover is how individual neurons form connections with other neurons. Professor Harris explains how comparative animal studies have been crucial to understanding what makes a human brain human, and how advances in science are assisting us in understanding many qualities that don't manifest until later in life. This has been a fascinating discussion on an intriguing topic. 

Complement this discussion with “The Spike: Journey of Electric Signals in Brain from Perception to Action with Professor Mark Humphries” available at: https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2021/06/the-spike-journey-of-electric-signals-in-brain-from-perception-to-action-with-professor-mark-humphries/

And then listen to “The Self-Assembling Brain” and the Quest for Artificial General Intelligence with Professor Peter Robin Hiesinger available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2021/11/the-self-assembling-brain-and-the-quest-for-artificial-general-intelligence-with-professor-peter-robin-hiesinger/

"Zero to Birth: How the Human Brain Is Built" with Professor William Harris

The rise of the platform economy puts state-like power in the hands of platform owners with little or no accountability. Over the past few decades, the chaotic and lawless early Internet evolved into a digital reality where e-commerce and digital services platform owners dictate decisions that affect millions living in different countries and jurisdictions. In his book “Cloud Empires: How Digital Platforms Are Overtaking the State and How We Can Regain Control” professor Vili Lehdonvirta explains how tech platforms got to where they are. The book outlines the history and evolution of tech platforms by telling the stories of individuals, the role they played in shaping and reshaping the Internet leading to the present day digital reality. Lehdonvirta emphasises that we can only begin to democratise digital platforms if we recognize them for what they are: institutions as powerful as the state. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Professor Vili Lehdonvirta; we discuss the book, the new social order established by the digital platform companies, and how the accumulated power of platforms could be challenged to hold them more accountable and to regain control. 

Vili Lehdonvirta is Professor of Economic Sociology and Digital Social Research at the Oxford Internet Institute at the University of Oxford. His research examines how digital technologies are used to reshape the organisation of economic activities in society. His research focuses on the questions such as what are the implications to workers, entrepreneurs, and states, and how can this digital economy be governed? His research draws on theories and approaches from economic sociology, political economy, industrial relations, new institutional economics, and science and technology studies.

We begin by discussing the chaotic and lawless days of the early Internet. We explore the emergence of the underlying theme to resist the undue influence of outsiders and to resist government regulations in favour of giving users more control, even in the early days of Usenet. We then discuss the emergence of Bitcoin in the context of a number of historic parallels such as the medieval economy and the Athenian peasant revolt. We explore the possibility, or perhaps the impossibility, of achieving true neutrality and privacy using BitCoin. At this point we start looking at the true nature of state-like powers accumulated by today’s cloud empires. An interesting point we touch upon is that similar to independent states and sovereign countries, are these state-like cloud empires protecting their users. We then look at the legal rights of employees working in these giant organisations. Finally we look at the two questions that emerge from the subtitle of the book “How digital platforms are overtaking the state and how we can regain control”. The first question is why it is important that we take back control, and the second question is, how should we do this. This has been an enlightening and thought provoking discussion. 

Complement this discussion with ““Working with AI: Real Stories of Human-Machine Collaboration” with Professor Thomas Davenport and Professor Steven Miller” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/10/working-with-ai-real-stories-of-human-machine-collaboration-thomas-davenport-steven-miller/
And then listen to  ““Philosophy of Technology” with Professor Peter-Paul Verbeek” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2021/01/philosophy-of-technology-with-professor-peter-paul-verbeek/

Cloud Empires: Governing State-like Digital Platforms & Regaining Control with Prof Vili Lehdonvirta

Looking for the earliest galaxies is like travelling back in time. Something that astronomers do all the time. Astronomers use huge and powerful telescopes to see not only farther and deeper into space, but also back in time. The hunt for the oldest galaxies using observational astronomy needs not only a thorough grasp of the physics and chemistry of the early cosmos, but also the human ingenuity of building large size telescopes and designing innovative instrumentation. Large and complicated telescopes, as well as supporting processes, techniques, and devices, allow astronomers to make more clear and accurate observations in their search for the first galaxies. In his new book “When Galaxies Were Born: The Quest for Cosmic Dawn” professor Richard Ellis presents a firsthand narrative of how a pioneering group of scientists used the world's greatest telescopes to unravel the history of the universe and witness cosmic dawn, when starlight first illuminated the cosmos and galaxies formed from darkness. The book also gives a narrative of a golden age of astronomy, outlining many achievements and disappointments, and discussing rivalries with competing teams. This is also an account of professor Elis’s remarkable career spanning more than forty years. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps I speak with professor Richard Ellis. We discuss amazing progres that astronomers have made in building ever larger and more powerful telescopes; we also dig deep on the fascinating research on the birth of galaxies and our quest for the cosmic dawn. 

Richard S. Ellis is professor of astrophysics at University College London and a world-renowned observational astronomer who has made numerous discoveries about the nature and evolution of the universe.

We start off discussing the human aspects of observational astronomy where teams from all over the world first compete for participating in constructing large telescopes and then compete for securing blocks of time to make observations. We review the taxonomy of large and most powerful ground based telescopes and discuss effectiveness and contribution of space telescopes towards observational astronomy. First light in the universe and the assembly of galaxies in the early universe are among the four main areas that the James Webb Space Telescope will focus on. We dig deep on these points, and what expectations researchers have from this new space telescope. We then discuss how human ingenuity has led to the development of  techniques such as adaptive mirrors and application of gravitational lensing to improve our observations. We then focus on the cutting edge research on the quest for cosmic dawn and dig deep on the physics and chemistry of the early universe. We discuss the role dark matter might have played in the formation of early galaxies. We also touch upon the origin of life in the universe, and briefly debate the question “are we alone”. This has been a fun discussion that is highly informative. 

Complement this discussion with ""Exploring the Mysteries of Our Universe’s First Seconds" with Dr Dan Hooper” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2020/09/at-the-edge-of-time-dr-dan-hooper/

And then listen to ""The End of Everything (Astrophysically Speaking)” with Dr Katie Mack” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2020/08/the-end-of-everything-astrophysically-speaking-with-dr-katie-mack/

“When Galaxies Were Born: The Quest for Cosmic Dawn” with Professor Richard Ellis

The future of technology is a subject of debate among experts. Some predict a bleak future where robots become dominant, leaving humans behind. Others, known as tech industry boosters, believe that replacing humans with software can lead to a better world. Critics of the tech industry express concern about the negative consequences of surveillance capitalism. Despite these differences, there is a shared belief that machines will eventually surpass humans in most areas. In his recent book "How to Stay Smart in a Smart World: Why Human Intelligence Still Beats Algorithms" professor Gerd Gigerenzer argues against this notion and offers insights on how we can maintain control in a world where algorithms are prevalent. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with professor Gerd Gigerenzer to discuss challenges posed by rapid developments in the tech sector, particularly in the field of artificial intelligence. We discuss different approaches that individuals can adopt to enhance their awareness of the potential hazards that come with using such systems and explore strategies to maintain control in a world where algorithms play a significant role.

Gerd Gigerenzer is a psychologist and researcher who has made significant contributions to the fields of cognitive psychology and decision-making. He is director emeritus at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development, and is director of the Harding Center for Risk Literacy at the University of Potsdam. He is a professor of psychology at the University of Chicago and is a visiting professor at the University of Virginia. His research focuses on how people make decisions under conditions of uncertainty and how to improve people's understanding of risk and probability. He has trained judges, physicians, and managers in decision-making and understanding risk.

Our discussion begins by exploring the limitations of present-day narrow and task-specific artificial intelligence systems in dealing with complex scenarios. Professor Gerd Gigerenzer's argument that simple heuristics may outperform complex algorithms in solving complex problems is particularly noteworthy. In fact, in some complex scenarios, relying on our intuition or "gut feelings" may result in better decisions than relying on sophisticated technological systems. We then discuss the importance of assessing the risks associated with using seemingly free services that actually collect and exploit users' data and information to sustain their business models. We delve into the topic of recommender systems that subtly influence users' choices by nudging them towards certain features, services, or information.  Next, we examine various strategies for individuals to become more mindful of the potential risks associated with using such systems, and consider ways to maintain control in a world where algorithms wield considerable influence. This has been an insightful discussion. 

Complement this discussion with ““Machines like Us: TOWARD AI WITH COMMON SENSE” with Professor Ronald Brachman” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/06/machines-like-us-toward-ai-with-common-sense-with-professor-ronald-brachman/
And then listen to  ““Philosophy of Technology” with Professor Peter-Paul Verbeek” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2021/01/philosophy-of-technology-with-professor-peter-paul-verbeek/

Reclaiming Human Intelligence and “How to Stay Smart in a Smart World” with Prof. Gerd Gigerenzer

When considering the long-term survival and sustainability of human civilization, two developments hold significant implications. Firstly, humanity has been recklessly depleting resources, causing species extinctions, and degrading essential elements for life on Earth for centuries. Secondly, advancements in the science of discovering habitable planets outside our solar system have opened up the possibility of establishing human civilization beyond our increasingly inhospitable planetary home. In his latest book, "Worlds Without End: Exoplanets, Habitability, and the Future of Humanity," Professor Chris Impey takes readers on a thrilling journey through the frontiers of astronomy and the search for planets that can potentially support life. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Professor Impey about the science behind finding habitable exoplanets, the evolution of space exploration, and the prospect of humans inhabiting a planet far away from our solar system.

Chris Impey is a University Distinguished Professor of Astronomy at the University of Arizona. He has made significant contributions to the fields of observational cosmology, astrophysics, particularly in the area of exoplanet research. His expertise and passion for the subject have led to many publications and appearances in documentaries, news outlets, and popular science programmes. He has won numerous teaching awards and authored textbooks and many popular science books. 

We begin our discussion by examining the historical perspectives on exoplanets, planets beyond our solar system. We then delve into the discovery of the first exoplanet and explore the various methods that scientists have employed to detect these far-off worlds. The Kepler Space Telescope played a pivotal role in this field, and we explore how the James Webb Telescope presents new opportunities for advancing exoplanet research. The diversity of exoplanets is astounding, with variations in size, composition, and orbital characteristics. We delve into these differences and their implications. Additionally, we thoroughly examine the concept of habitability, including how scientists are studying the atmospheric characteristics of these alien worlds. We also touch on the intriguing possibility of orphan planets - large planets without a star - that may sustain habitability characteristics without a sun. We then contemplate the prospect of travelling to these distant planets and potentially establishing human settlements there. We explore the magnitude of such a journey and the challenges involved in interstellar travel. Lastly, we consider the possibility of extraterrestrial life in the universe.

Complement this discussion with “Search for Exoplanets: A Discussion with Professor Sara Seager” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2016/12/search-for-exoplanets-with-sara-seager/
And then listen to  ““The End of Astronauts”, Robotic Space Exploration and Our Future on Earth and Beyond with Professor Martin Rees” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/03/the-end-of-astronauts-robotic-space-exploration-and-our-future-on-earth-and-beyond-with-professor-martin-rees/

“Worlds Without End: Exoplanets, Habitability, and the Future of Humanity” with Prof. Chris Impey

Kendall Square, situated in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has earned the reputation of being "the most innovative square mile on the planet." It serves as a vibrant epicentre for life sciences, housing renowned companies such as Biogen, Moderna, Pfizer, Takeda, and many others. Additionally, it stands as a prominent hub for technology, with giants like Google, Microsoft, IBM, Amazon, Facebook, and Apple occupying substantial portions of valuable office space within its bounds. The square is also home to a thriving community of startups, with convenient proximity to leading venture capital firms. Moreover, its proximity to Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) further enhances its status as a centre for cutting-edge ideas.

In his book "Where Futures Converge: Kendall Square and the Making of a Global Innovation Hub," Robert Buderi shares interesting accounts of visionary innovators and their groundbreaking creations, spanning a remarkable two centuries. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Robert Buderi, exploring the distinctive ecosystem that defines Kendall Square. We discuss various cycles of transformation and reinvention that have propelled its evolution over time.

Robert Buderi is an author, journalist, and entrepreneur. He is the author of “Engines of Tomorrow, The Invention That Changed the World”, and other books. He is former Editor-in-Chief of “Technology Review”, and founder of the media company Xconomy.

We begin our conversation by talking about Kendall Square's geography, which means where it's located, and its history as a place known for business and innovation. We then take a closer look at the first innovators who chose Kendall Square to start their businesses and create new products and services. We also talk about the advantages of having important academic and research institutions close by and explore the relationship between industry and academia. After that, we shift our focus to the present and talk about what Kendall Square is like today. We explore the different industries, products, and services that are based there. Overall, this is an interesting and informative discussion.

Complement this discussion with ““The Technology Trap” and the Future of Work” with Dr Carl Frey” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2019/10/the-technology-trap-and-the-future-of-work-with-dr-carl-frey/
And then listen to  “Asking Better Questions for Creative Problem Solving, Innovation and Effective Leadership with Hal Gregersen” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/02/asking-better-questions-for-creative-problem-solving-innovation-and-effective-leadership-with-hal-gregersen/

“Kendall Square and the Making of a Global Innovation Hub” with Robert Buderi

Smartness has permeated our lives in the form of smartphones, smart cars, smart homes, and smart cities. It has become a mandate, a pervasive force that governs politics, economics, and the environment. As our world faces increasingly complex challenges, the drive for ubiquitous computing raises important questions. What exactly is this 'smartness mandate'? How did it emerge, and what does it reveal about our evolving understanding and management of reality? How did we come to view the planet and its inhabitants primarily as instruments for data collection?

In the book 'The Smartness Mandate,' co-authored by Professor Orit Halpern, the notion of 'smartness' is presented as more than just a technology, it is presented as an epistemology — a way of knowing. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Professor Orit Halpern, where we delve into the concept of smartness. We explore its historical roots and its cultural implications, particularly its emphasis on data-driven technologies and decision-making processes across domains such as urban planning, healthcare, and education.

Orit Halpern is Lighthouse Professor and Chair of Digital Cultures and Societal Change at Technische Universität Dresden. She completed her Ph.D. at Harvard. She has held numerous visiting scholar positions including at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin, IKKM Weimar, and at Duke University. At present she is  working on two projects. The first project is about the history of automation, intelligence, and freedom; and the second project examines extreme infrastructures and the history of experimentation at planetary scales in design, science, and engineering.

Our conversation begins by discussing the idea of “smartness” as presented in the book. To understand it better, we look at a few examples. The book suggests that the smartness paradigm relies a lot on collecting data, analysing it, as well as monitoring people through surveillance. We talk about the possible risks and consequences of this data-focused approach for personal privacy and individual rights. Next, we talk about how the smartness idea connects with the concept of resilience. We also touch on the fact, as presented in the book, that the smartness paradigm often reinforces existing power structures and inequalities. We explore the biases and ethical concerns that may arise with the use of these technologies. Furthermore, we explore the possibility of using the smartness approach to promote fairness and equality. We talk about how it could be applied to create a more just society. We discuss the significance of multidisciplinarity, and the role of higher education institutions and educators to create an enabling environment for an informed discourse to address these questions.  Professor Orit Halpren emphasises the importance of exploring these questions and addressing relevant concerns to make sure we create the kind of world we truly want for ourselves.

Complement this discussion with “Cloud Empires: Governing State-like Digital Platforms and Regaining Control with Professor Vili Lehdonvirta” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/01/cloud-empires-governing-state-like-digital-platforms-and-regaining-control-with-professor-vili-lehdonvirta/
And then listen to  “Reclaiming Human Intelligence and “How to Stay Smart in a Smart World” with Prof. Gerd Gigerenzer” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/04/reclaiming-human-intelligence-and-how-to-stay-smart-in-a-smart-world-with-prof-gerd-gigerenzer/

“The Smartness Mandate” with Professor Orit Halpern

We experience, thus we exist. Our conscious perceptions form the foundation of our self-awareness. They play a vital role in shaping our understanding of ourselves as sentient beings: present, alive, and significant. However, what is the origin of consciousness, and how does the process of experiencing sensations and developing a sense of awareness contribute to its emergence? Is this capacity limited solely to humans? Do other animals share this ability? And what about the potential for future machines? 

In his book “Sentience: The Invention of Consciousness” neuropsychologist Professor Nicholas Humphrey uncovers the evolutionary history of consciousness and argues that consciousness evolved to make us feel that life is worth living. Drawing upon his groundbreaking research on social intelligence, as well as his intriguing findings on blindsight in monkeys and profound insights into the philosophy of mind, Professor Humphrey outlines a fascinating narrative to unveil the evolutionary origins of consciousness. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Professor Nicholas Humphrey. 

Nicholas Humphrey, Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the London School of Economics, is a theoretical psychologist, who studies the evolution of intelligence and consciousness. He was the first to demonstrate the existence of “blindsight” in monkeys. He has also studied mountain gorillas with Dian Fossey in Rwanda, and proposed the celebrated theory of the “social function of intellect,”. His research holds profound significance in exploring and unravelling the mysteries of the mind and its evolutionary underpinnings.


We start off by discussing the enigma surrounding the emergence of consciousness and the challenges encountered when attempting to understand its nature and origins. Professor Nicholas Humphrey's book introduces the intriguing concepts of cognitive consciousness and phenomenal consciousness, which we thoroughly explore during our conversation. We then discuss in detail the concept of sentience as presented and explained in this book. We delve into the evolutionary perspective, examining why consciousness became an adaptive trait and how it evolved within living organisms. An intriguing question arises: if our early animal ancestors possessed cognitive consciousness, how did it transition into phenomenal consciousness? Could there exist an observable threshold, such as brain size, neuron count, or processing capacity, at which cognitive consciousness transforms into phenomenal consciousness? We then discuss the fascinating notion of blindsight and its relevance to the theory of consciousness presented in the book. We then delve into the complex concept of sensations, exploring how the firing of neurons and the movement of electric signals within the brain give rise to our subjective experience of consciousness. Lastly, we explore the possibility of consciousness emerging within machines, contemplating its potential evolution beyond organic life. 

Complement this discussion with ““The Case Against Reality” and The Hard Problem of Consciousness with Professor Donald Hoffman” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/07/the-case-against-reality-and-the-hard-problem-of-consciousness-with-professor-donald-hoffman/
And then listen to  “From Consciousness to Synthetic Consciousness: From One Unknown to Another Unknown with David Chalmers” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2015/03/from-consciousness-to-synthetic-consciousness-from-one-unknown-to-another-unknown-with-david-chalmers/

“Sentience: The Invention of Consciousness” with Professor Nicholas Humphrey

We live in  a society driven by a relentless pursuit of greatness, where we are constantly pushed to attain the highest levels of wealth, power, and fame. This relentless fixation on greatness leads to stress and anxiety, strains our interpersonal connections, fosters extensive political and economic disparities, and contributes to the deterioration of our natural environment. In his book “The Good-Enough Life” author and educator Avram Alpert explores the idea of whether embracing our limitations could pave the way to a more satisfying existence and a more harmonious society. He explains why the relentless pursuit of competition within our social structure ultimately yields no real advantages for anyone and offers a vision of an alternative way of life—an inclusive, good-enough life for all. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps I speak with Dr Avram Alpert 

Dr Avram Alpert is a writer and teacher. He has worked at Princeton and Rutgers Universities, and is currently a research fellow at the New Institute in Hamburg. His work has appeared in publications such as the New York Times, the Washington Post, and Aeon.


We begin our conversation by discussing the concept of 'Good-Enough,' a central theme in the book. Following that, we explore the notion of 'greatness.' In particular, I engage Dr. Avram Alpert in a conversation about his perspective on the achievements of individuals who attain success and fame through their dedication and hard work. We also talk about people who have done great things and made society better. Then our discussion shifts toward the idea of fostering a more equitable and just society, emphasising the potential benefits of reduced competition among individuals. We explore the possibility of a society where each person can rediscover a sense of purpose and meaning, and have their material and emotional needs met.

Complement this discussion with “Reclaiming Human Intelligence and “How to Stay Smart in a Smart World” with Prof. Gerd Gigerenzer” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/04/reclaiming-human-intelligence-and-how-to-stay-smart-in-a-smart-world-with-prof-gerd-gigerenzer/
And then listen to  “Cloud Empires: Governing State-like Digital Platforms and Regaining Control with Professor Vili Lehdonvirta” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/01/cloud-empires-governing-state-like-digital-platforms-and-regaining-control-with-professor-vili-lehdonvirta/

“The Good-Enough Life” with Dr Avram Alpert

Science communication plays an important role in bridging the gap between researchers and the general public, fostering understanding, engagement, and appreciation for scientific explorations and advancements. In an era where science and technology shape every aspect of our lives, effective communication of research findings is more critical than ever. This is also a time where there are conflicting views about scientific work and polarizations in societies. This makes effective science communication even more important not only to ensure that scientific knowledge is accessible to all, but also to empower individuals to make informed decisions, influences policy-making, and fosters trust in the scientific community. However, effective science communication goes beyond simply disseminating information; it requires clarity, creativity, and engagement strategies tailored to diverse audiences. By employing clear language and compelling storytelling researchers can effectively communicate their findings, thereby enhancing public awareness and understanding of the profound impact that science has on society. In his recent book “Sharing Our Science: How to Write and Speak STEM”  Professor Brandon Brown, a scientist-turned-writing teacher, provides a highly valuable resource for STEM practitioners aiming to effectively convey their technical work to both specialised and general audiences. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps I speak with Professor Brandon Brown; we discuss this personal, practical, and inspirational guide for scientists and technical professionals seeking to enhance their written and oral communication skills in STEM fields.

Brandon Brown is a Professor of Physics and communications specialist at the University of San Francisco. He is an excellent science communicator. He  has written for publications such as  Slate, Smithsonian, and Scientific American and served as Deputy Director at the Green Science Policy Institute and a Senior Writing Coach for the Strictly Speaking Group.

We begin by exploring the significance of storytelling in effective science communication, delving into diverse tools and approaches such as tension and narrative to enhance the communication of scientific concepts. We further examine the utilisation of relatable examples, including simplifying large numbers and intricate comparisons like the size of an atom relative to its nucleus, to improve clarity and facilitate comprehension. We also address the detrimental effects of disinformation on science communication, which can lead to societal polarisation and divisions. We also reflect on Professor Brandon Brown's personal encounters, highlighting how adept communication of challenging facts can profoundly influence individuals. This has been both informative and insightful discussion. 


Complement this discussion with “Reclaiming Human Intelligence and “On Public Communication of Science and Technology with Professor Bruce Lewenstein” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/02/on-public-communication-of-science-and-technology-with-professor-bruce-lewenstein/
And then listen to  ““The Joy of Science” with Professor Jim Al-Khalili” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/05/the-joy-of-science-with-professor-jim-al-khalili/

“Sharing Our Science: How to Write and Speak STEM” with Professor Brandon Brown

Has human behaviour pushed our world to the edge, especially the mistaken belief that the earth’s resources are infinite? And can a shift in human behaviour rescue us? The challenges we face, from collapsing social structures to the climate crisis, have been centuries in the making. It is immensely critical that we take immediate and decisive actions; we must  transform ourselves to improve our circumstances. In his new book “Design for a Better World: Meaningful, Sustainable, Humanity Centered” Don Norman offers an insightful analysis of our missteps and provides a clear remedy for making things better. The book suggests that the pivotal factor for change lies in human behaviour. The book explores this through three main themes: meaning, sustainability, and humanity-centeredness. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with professor Don Norman. We dig deep on these three themes and explore the ideas that a meaningful quality of life, rather than mere monetary gain, restructuring our lifestyles to enhance environmental protection, and adopting an inclusive approach that encompasses all of humanity, can empower us to address the challenges confronting us.

Don Norman is Distinguished Professor Emeritus of Cognitive Science and Psychology and founding director of the Design Lab at the University of California, San Diego. Business Week has named Norman one of the world's most influential designers. He was an Apple Vice President, has been an advisor and board member for numerous companies, and has three honorary degrees. His numerous books have been translated into over 20 languages including “The Design of Everyday Things” and “Living with Complexity”. 


We start off by examining the pervasive artificiality surrounding us. Misplaced and disjointed elements, such as non-native plants, high density concrete structures and other artefacts, contribute to environments saturated with artificial constructs. Furthermore, we delve into how our metrics of success are also influenced by this artificiality. We measure our success by using metrics that don’t encompass what really matters. This artificiality has consequently led to an unsustainable sociotechnical system. We touch upon the ramifications of distorted capitalism before delving deeply into the central themes of the book: meaning, sustainability, and humanity-centeredness. Exploring the human quest for significance, we discuss why a sense of meaning is essential for every aspect of our existence. Addressing sustainability, we discuss how to rectify the harm inflicted upon the ecosystem. Finally, we discuss a humanity-centered approach to crafting artefacts and lifestyles that offers a pathway to rectify our current predicament. This discussion has been both enlightening and invigorating.

 
Complement this discussion with “Philosophy of Technology” with Professor Peter-Paul Verbeek available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2021/01/philosophy-of-technology-with-professor-peter-paul-verbeek/
And then listen to  “The Good-Enough Life” with Dr Avram Alpert available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/09/the-good-enough-life-with-dr-avram-alpert/

“Design for a Better World: Meaningful, Sustainable, Humanity Centered” with Professor Don Norman

Artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as one of the most remarkable advancements of our time. It is a powerful evolving technology that has transformed the way we interact with machines and perceive the capabilities of computer systems. However, with this newfound power comes a natural apprehension. There is a noticeable fear surrounding the unintentional consequences and unintended implications of Artificial Intelligence. As this technology becomes increasingly integrated into our daily lives, the question is: how justified are our fears and just how tangible, and how real is the threat posed by this revolutionary technology? Perhaps, the underlying cause of these fears is our tendency to unjustifiably attribute human traits to the machines we may construct.  

A compelling new perspective suggests that human intelligence will evolve alongside digital technology, leading to a transformative coevolution of human and artificial intelligence. This augmented intelligence will reshape our thinking and behaviour. In his recent book “Evolutionary Intelligence: How Technology Will Make Us Smarter” Professor W. Russell Neuman offers a remarkably optimistic perspective where computational intelligence not only addresses the well-known limitations of human judgement but also enhances decision-making capabilities and expands our capacity for action. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Professor W. Russell Neuman. We discuss how our future depends on our ability to computationally compensate for the limitations of the human cognitive system. We explore Neuman’s viewpoint that “if intelligence is the capacity to match means with ends, then augmented intelligence can offer the ability to adapt to changing environments as we face the ultimate challenge of long-term survival”. Professor Neuman's distinctive approach to explain complex concepts through narratives and anecdotes adds an engaging layer of interest to this discussion. This highly informative discussion makes a powerful argument for the continued coexistence of humans and their machines.  

W. Russell Neuman is Professor of Media Technology at New York University. He is a specialist in new media and digital education. He is a founding faculty of the MIT Media Lab. He served as a Senior Policy Analyst in the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy, working in the areas of information technology, broadband policy, and technologies for border security. 

Complement this discussion with “Reclaiming Human Intellgience” with Professor Gerd Gigerenzer available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/04/reclaiming-human-intelligence-and-how-to-stay-smart-in-a-smart-world-with-prof-gerd-gigerenzer/
And then listen to  “Working with AI: Real Stories of Human-Machine Collaboration” with Professor Thomas Davenport and Professor Steven Miller available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/10/working-with-ai-real-stories-of-human-machine-collaboration-thomas-davenport-steven-miller/

“Evolutionary Intelligence: How Technology Will Make Us Smarter” with Professor W. Russell Neuman

A Conversation with Professor Carol Dweck

Growth Mindset: Professor Carol Dweck at BTG

As fresh algorithms and new analytical methods emerge, existing datasets can uncover insights beyond their original purpose. Regardless of their intended use, data often possess hidden potentials and always have a “secret life”. “How this data will be used, by other people in other times and places, has profound implications for every aspect of our lives—from our intimate relationships to our professional lives to our political systems”, argue Professor Aram Sinnreich and Jesse Gilbert in their new book “The Secret Life of Data: Navigating Hype and Uncertainty in the Age of Algorithmic Surveillance”. This phenomenon raises various moral, ethical, and legal questions: Should we use datasets for unexpected and unforeseen insights? Should we create new frameworks to control and regulate using datasets for purposes beyond their original intent? Ignoring opportunities to analyse data in new ways might limit their potential, but pursuing them introduces ethical dilemmas. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Professor Aram Sinnreich and Jesse Gilbert.  

Aram Sinnreich is an author, professor, and musician. He is Chair of Communication Studies at American University. Jesse Gilbert is an interdisciplinary artist exploring the intersection of visual art, sound, and software design at his firm Dark Matter Media. He was the founding Chair of the Media Technology department at Woodbury University.

I begin the conversation by setting the stage for our listeners and delving into the idea of the "secret life of data" as discussed in the book. We then delve deeper into the nature and scale of the challenge posed by this phenomenon. One key point highlighted in the book is that the challenge is primarily conceptual—we're uncertain about what exactly we're aiming to control, handle, and regulate. We thoroughly explore this aspect.

To address this "conceptual challenge," the book provides a comprehensive overview of various frameworks and approaches that have been developed and are currently utilised to tackle similar challenges. The book then extends these concepts to envision and propose a framework that could aid us in addressing this particular challenge. We discuss in detail a number of existing frameworks outlined in the book, and then explore the possibilities to address these emerging challenges.  Overall, this conversation has been immensely interesting and enlightening.


Complement this discussion with “Dark Data: Why What You Don’t Know Matters” with Professor David Handavailable at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2020/03/dark-data-why-what-you-dont-know-matters-with-professor-david-hand/
And then listen to Reclaiming Human Intelligence and “How to Stay Smart in a Smart World” with Prof. Gerd Gigerenzer available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/04/reclaiming-human-intelligence-and-how-to-stay-smart-in-a-smart-world-with-prof-gerd-gigerenzer/

“The Secret Life of Data: Navigating Hype and Uncertainty” with Aram Sinnreich and Jesse Gilbert

Since the Enlightenment, humanity has turned to science to answer profound questions about who we are, where we come from, and where we’re headed. However, we've become stuck in the belief that we can fully understand the universe by viewing it from a detached, external perspective. In focusing solely on external physical realities, imagined from this objective standpoint, we overlook the vital role of our own lived experience. This is the "Blind Spot" that astrophysicist Adam Frank, theoretical physicist Marcelo Gleiser, and philosopher Evan Thompson discuss in their book  “The Blind Spot: Why Science Cannot Ignore Human Experience”. They identify this “Blind Spot” as the root of many modern scientific challenges —whether it's in understanding time and the origin of the universe, quantum physics, the nature of life, artificial intelligence, consciousness, or Earth's function as a planetary system. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with astrophysicist Adam Frank. 

Adam Frank is a renowned astrophysicist and professor in the Department of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Rochester. He is a leading expert on the final stages of stellar evolution, particularly for stars like the sun. At the University of Rochester, his computational research group has developed cutting-edge supercomputer tools to study the formation and death of stars. A passionate advocate for science, Frank describes himself as an “evangelist of science,” dedicated not only to uncovering the mysteries of the cosmos but also to sharing the beauty and power of science with the public. He is equally committed to exploring science's broader role within culture, emphasising its relevance and context in our understanding of the world. His contributions to the field have earned him prestigious recognition, including the Carl Sagan Medal. 

In this discussion we delve into why it is crucial to recognize this “Blind Spot” and the profound implications it has for how we approach science and knowledge. By focusing solely on external, objective facts, we miss a deeper understanding of reality—one that includes our subjective experience as an integral part of the equation. This Blind Spot has led to significant challenges in fields like quantum physics, cosmology, and the study of consciousness, where the limitations of purely objective observation become evident.

We also explore an alternative vision for science: that scientific knowledge should not be viewed as a fixed, immutable set of facts, but rather as a dynamic, evolving narrative. This narrative emerges from the constant interplay between the external world and our lived experience of it. In this view, science becomes a process of continuous self-correction, where both the observer and the observed are part of an evolving relationship. Frank stresses that recognizing this interplay allows us to break free from the illusion of absolute knowledge and opens up a more holistic, adaptive, and integrated way of understanding the universe. This shift in perspective has the potential to reshape how we approach not only scientific inquiry but also our relationship with reality itself. This has been an incredibly enlightening and deeply informative discussion, offering valuable insights and fresh perspective.

Complement this discussion with ““The Joy of Science” with Professor Jim Al-Khalili” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/05/the-joy-of-science-with-professor-jim-al-khalili/
And then listen to  ““Sharing Our Science: How to Write and Speak STEM” with Professor Brandon Brown” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2024/02/sharing-our-science-how-to-write-and-speak-stem-with-professor-brandon-brown/

“The Blind Spot: Why Science Cannot Ignore Human Experience” with Professor Adam Frank

The news about emerging technologies often sounds alarming as well as discouraging. Headlines talk about how algorithms control and oppress people. There are fears that AI could harm democracy, damage our social connections, or even cause human extinction. While these fears come from real concerns, it’s also important to recognize the good that technology offers. For young people, tech can provide a unique space for self-growth. In her book “From Pessimism to Promise: Lessons from the Global South on Designing Inclusive Tech”, award-winning author professor Payal Arora shares a different perspective, especially outside the Western world, where most young people live. In these places, there’s a wave of optimism about technology, especially among marginalized groups. These users see hope in the possibilities that new tech brings. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with professor Payal Arora. 

Payal Arora is a digital anthropologist, consultant, TEDx speaker, and the award-winning author. She is a Professor of Inclusive AI Cultures at Utrecht University and is the cofounder of FemLab, a feminist initiative focused on the future of work.

We begin by exploring how emerging technologies are transforming education in the Global South in positive ways. These changes are not just reshaping traditional systems but also offering new opportunities that bring hope to more people and foster greater inclusivity. Next, we emphasize the importance of context when evaluating and discussing these new technologies. A one-size-fits-all approach doesn’t work; instead, the impact of technology can vary greatly depending on cultural, social, and economic circumstances. Take the example of privacy—what privacy means and how it is valued can shift dramatically when considered in different contexts. In some communities, privacy concerns might revolve around data security, while in others, it may be more about social visibility or personal safety. This makes it essential to examine technologies through a local lens.

We also delve into the concept of the Global South, both as a geographical term and as a mindset. While the Global South refers to countries typically in Latin America, Africa, Asia, and parts of the Middle East, it is also much more than just a place on the map. It represents a way of thinking and living, shaped by shared histories of colonialism, economic challenges, and rapid adaptation to global forces. It is a concept rich with multiple contexts, where resilience and innovation are key themes.

Finally, we explore the sense of hope and optimism that emerging technologies bring to the Global South. In these regions, technology is often seen not as a threat but as a tool for empowerment. People are embracing digital advancements with excitement, seeing them as opportunities to overcome obstacles and build a better future. This contagious optimism is fueled by the ability to leapfrog over outdated systems, creating new paths for social progress, economic growth, and personal empowerment.

Complement this discussion with ““Kendall Square and the Making of a Global Innovation Hub” with Robert Buderi” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/05/kendall-square-and-the-making-of-a-global-innovation-hub-with-robert-buderi/
And then listen to  ““The Good-Enough Life” with Dr Avram Alpert” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/09/the-good-enough-life-with-dr-avram-alpert/

“Lessons from the Global South on Designing Inclusive Tech” with Professor Payal Arora

Contrary to the widespread belief that all technology is sleek, flawless, and cutting-edge, much of it isn’t designed to meet such high standards or be revolutionary. In many environments, the goal isn’t always to create perfect, futuristic products. Instead, the focus is often on functionality—producing tech that is good enough to meet immediate needs without striving for perfection. This mindset contrasts with the image of the tech world as a space of constant innovation, where every new development is expected to disrupt industries and change lives. Instead, in many cases, the aim is to simply keep things running smoothly, making sure the technology works well enough to get by, while knowing that it will likely be improved or replaced in the next version. In her book “Middle Tech: Software Work and the Culture of Good Enough” Professor Paula Bialski explores this idea through an ethnographic study of software developers working at a corporate tech company. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Professor Paula Bialski. 

Paula Bialski is associate professor of digital sociology at the University of St. Gallen in St. Gallen, Switzerland.

We begin our discussion by exploring why Paula chose to conduct her study at a mid-sized software development company, rather than focusing on the world’s top tech firms with their sleek offices and cutting-edge facilities. This choice allowed her to investigate a more grounded and realistic aspect of the tech industry. From there, we dive into how she conducted her research—how she embedded herself with the developers and built rapport to understand their day-to-day work and culture.

A major focus of our conversation is the concept of "good enoughness" in corporate software development. Paula explains how this mindset shapes the way tech workers approach their tasks, balancing functionality and time constraints over perfection. I ask her if "good enough" can sometimes become a way to avoid striving for excellence, or even an excuse for sloppiness, which leads us to a broader conversation about how developers navigate this balance. 

We also discuss the challenges software engineers face at work, such as dealing with outdated systems, tight deadlines, and corporate expectations, and how these challenges compare to those in other professions. We also touch upon the challenges they face in their personal space. Paula gives insight into how the fast-paced culture of the tech world, where professionals often move quickly from one job to the next, influences the work environment.

Finally, we briefly touch on Paula’s upcoming project, which will examine the impact of AI on software development—a topic that promises to provide new insights into how technology will continue to shape this field. It has been a fascinating conversation that sheds light on a side of the tech industry not often discussed.

Complement this discussion with ““The AI Playbook: Mastering the Rare Art of Machine Learning Deployment” with Eric Siegel” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2024/02/the-ai-playbook-mastering-the-rare-art-of-machine-learning-deployment-with-eric-siegel/
And then listen to  ““Augmented Thinking: The New Convergence of Art, Technology, and Science with Professor Julio Ottino” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/06/augmented-thinking-convergence-of-art-technology-and-science-with-julio-ottino/

“Middle Tech: Software Work and the Culture of Good Enough” with Professor Paula Bialski

For a long time, the prevailing perspective on evolution has been that it follows a vertical pathway, where genetic information is passed down from one generation to the next in a linear fashion, resembling a "tree of life." This classical view suggests that species evolve through a process of divergence from common ancestors, resulting in a branching tree structure that traces the lineage of life over time. In his new book “The Network of Life” Professor David Mindell emphasises the need to update this understanding, and explains that evolution functions more like a distributed, decentralised network. In this framework, there are possibilities for horizontal evolution, where genetic material is shared across species in a more fluid and interconnected manner. The book looks at the forces behind horizontal evolution, such as interbreeding, genetic recombination, merging of species, horizontal gene transfer, and coevolution. The network view of evolution leads to a new symbiotic theory of health. It suggests that the future well-being of humans, other species, and our environment relies on how life evolves and adapts within this interconnected web. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps I speak with Professor David Mindell. 
 

Professor David Mindel is a senior researcher of Zoology at the University of California, Berkeley. He is a former professor of ecology and evolutionary biology at the University of Michigan, director of the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, and Dean of Science at the California Academy of Sciences.


We begin our discussion by revisiting the traditional concept of vertical evolution, where life is represented as a branching tree. We explore how this classical framework explains the development of species over time and then shift to discussing two core ideas in evolutionary theory: natural selection and genetic mutation. For much of history, evolution has been viewed primarily through the lens of vertical inheritance.

One reason for this focus on vertical evolution is that early evolutionary studies, including Darwin's, were centred around natural selection, with limited knowledge about genetic mutations. Today, we know they are essential drivers of evolution. We examine how this early gap in understanding may have shaped the preference for the vertical model of evolution.

Next, we delve into the concept of horizontal evolution, and discuss the point made in the book that “horizontal evolution has been happening since life began on Earth”. To set the stage, I ask him to outline what we currently know about the origins of life. We also discuss the intriguing role of viruses.

We then dive into the key discoveries and discuss processes such as hybridization, species merging, and horizontal gene transfer that provide strong evidence for this interconnected view of life. We discuss various contributions of prominent scientists and pivotal studies that have reshaped our understanding of evolution.

Finally, we explore the exciting possibilities that arise from this new understanding. By embracing the network view of evolution, we can enhance research on synthetic life, support assisted evolution to help species adapt to climate change, and revolutionise our approaches to biotechnology, medicine, and environmental sustainability. This has been an insightful and enriching conversation, shedding light on the profound impact of horizontal evolution on our world.

Complement this discussion with ““Zero to Birth: How the Human Brain Is Built” with Professor William Harris” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/10/zero-to-birth-how-the-human-brain-is-built-with-professor-william-harris/
And then listen to  ““The Exquisite Machine: The New Science of the Heart” with Professor Sian Harding” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/12/the-exquisite-machine-the-new-science-of-the-heart-with-sian-harding/

“The Network of Life: A New View of Evolution” with Professor David Mindell

​​Hunger is far more than the immediate and tangible experience of not being able to find or buy food. While it is true that hunger is often depicted as the physical sensation of an empty stomach—a condition that can be temporarily alleviated by food—the issue runs much deeper. Hunger is more than the absence of food; it is a manifestation of deeper, societal and  structural failings leading to individual and collective trauma. To genuinely combat hunger, we must engage with its underlying causes—economic inequality, systemic discrimination, and societal neglect—and strive to create a compassionate and just society where all people have the resources, respect, and opportunities they need to thrive. In her book "The Painful Truth about Hunger in America: Why We Must Unlearn Everything We Think We Know—and Start Again"  professor Mariana Chilton presents a bold, transformative perspective on addressing hunger and poverty in the United States. The book emphasises that hunger in the United States is underpinned by profound societal and structural failures that perpetuate poverty and ensure that millions remain trapped in cycles of scarcity. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps I speak with professor Mariana Chilton. 

Although the book focuses on the issues of hunger and poverty in the United States, the human experiences and the underlying structural and social root causes it explores are often universal. The insights and key points raised in the book resonate with similar challenges faced in other societies and regions, making its research and findings valuable for broader learning and application.

Mariana Chilton is a Professor of Health Management and Policy at Drexel University's Dornsife School of Public Health. She is the founder of the Center for Hunger-Free Communities, where she initiated impactful programs such as “Witnesses to Hunger”, aimed at amplifying women's voices in the national conversation on hunger and poverty, and the “Building Wealth and Health Network”, which focuses on fostering economic security and healing. Chilton has provided expert testimony on hunger solutions before both the US Senate and the House of Representatives.


Our discussion delves into the intricate connections between hunger and trauma, revealing the emotional and psychological toll on individuals and communities. We examine the persistent nature of poverty and its link to generational trauma and explore the complex relationship between poverty, violence, and systemic inequalities. Professor Chilton provides thoughtful explanations supported by real-world examples and personal stories, many of which are detailed in her book. We touch upon the historical contexts as well. We also discuss challenges involved in conducting research on such sensitive topics, particularly when working with vulnerable populations. The discussion covers both ethical considerations and the logistical obstacles researchers face when collecting data and sharing findings in a manner that respects and empowers participants. Professor Chilton’s insights shed light on the importance of compassionate, inclusive approaches to research and advocacy that prioritise the voices of those most affected by these issues.

Complement this discussion with ““From Pessimism to Promise: Lessons from the Global South on Designing Inclusive Tech” with Professor Payal Arora” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2024/10/from-pessimism-to-promise-lessons-from-the-global-south-on-designing-inclusive-tech-with-professor-payal-arora/

And then listen to “”A Passion for Ignorance” and for Denials and Negations with Professor Renata Salecl” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2020/10/a-passion-for-ignorance-and-for-denials-and-negations-with-professor-renata-salecl/

“The Painful Truth about Hunger in America” with Professor Mariana Chilton

Consider this thought-provoking statement: “Life is information that maintains itself.” This argument, proposed by Professor Christoph Adami in his book “The Evolution of Biological Information: How Evolution Creates Complexity, from Viruses to Brains” places information at the heart of biological systems. Adami's innovative perspective offers fresh insights into phenomena such as the evolution of drug resistance in viruses, the development of cellular communication, and the emergence of intelligence. By framing information as the unifying principle of biology, this approach provides a systematic way to explore the origin of life—both on Earth and beyond. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps I speak with Professor Christoph Adami. 

Christoph Adami is professor of microbiology and molecular genetics & physics as well as astronomy at Michigan State University. A pioneer in the application of methods from information theory to the study of evolution, he designed the Avida system that launched the use of digital life as a tool for investigating basic questions in evolutionary biology. He has received several awards, including the NASA Exceptional Achievement Medal and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the International Society for Artificial Life.

We begin with an in-depth exploration of Shannon’s information theory, focusing particularly on the concept of entropy. This foundation sets the stage for a discussion on how biological systems store and preserve information. We delve into the information content of genes and proteins, highlighting a key idea from the book: “Living organisms know some very important facts about the world they inhabit and thrive in.” 

Next, we examine the concept of genetic information and its storage within DNA molecules and genomes. This includes a detailed look at the nature of this information and the latest understanding of the data encoded within the genome. 

We then turn to the core mechanisms—or laws—of evolution: inheritance, variation, and selection, framing these processes as the measurement, processing, and transmission of information. To describe evolution through the lens of information theory, Adami incorporates the concept of Maxwell’s demon, a thought experiment that challenges the second law of thermodynamics. We discuss this thought experiment in detail and its application to understanding the evolution of biological information.

Finally, we explore the profound question of the origin of life, accompanied by an engaging discussion on viruses. Before finishing this discussion, we also touch upon the nature and challenges of multidisciplinary research. Overall, this has been an enlightening and highly informative journey into the intersection of biology and information theory. 

Complement this discussion with ““The Network of Life: A New View of Evolution” with Professor David Mindell” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2024/10/the-network-of-life-a-new-view-of-evolution-with-professor-david-mindell/
And then listen to  ““Zero to Birth: How the Human Brain Is Built” with Professor William Harris” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/10/zero-to-birth-how-the-human-brain-is-built-with-professor-william-harris/

“The Evolution of Biological Information” with Professor Christoph Adami

Astronomy tells the story of humanity's journey from viewing the sky as a flat, two-dimensional dome to understanding it as a vast, dynamic, and ever-expanding three-dimensional universe. This enduring story has been told through countless books, brought to life in words, and crafted into both prose and poetry. But imagine a book that goes beyond simply telling the tale—a book that invites you to actively engage with it, exploring the depths of the universe as unveiled by the most advanced astronomical research and discoveries of our time.

The book “Welcome to the Universe in 3D: A Visual Tour” invites you on a captivating journey through the observable universe, showcasing some of the most awe-inspiring sights in the cosmos—in stunning 3D. Featuring a dazzling collection of stereoscopic color images and with a special stereo viewer conveniently folded into the book's cover, you can experience your cosmic surroundings in a breathtaking new dimension. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Dr Neil deGrasse Tyson, one of the authors of this fascinating and truly one-of-a-kind book.

Neil deGrasse Tyson is a renowned science communicator and the first Frederick P. Rose Director of the Hayden Planetarium at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, where he is also a research associate in astrophysics.  

Tyson has received 27 honorary doctorates and the NASA Distinguished Public Service Medal. His legacy is further honored with asteroid “13123 Tyson” and a leaping frog species, "Indirani tysoni", named after him.

We begin by discussing the inspiration behind a book with a built-in stereoscopic viewer and the science behind creating 3D images that come alive through the brain’s intricate processing. This leads to reflections on humanity’s discovery of the universe’s three-dimensional nature, aided by concepts like parallax.  

We explore some of the book’s stunning images, showcasing the cosmos in breathtaking depth, and address challenges in science communication amidst misinformation. The role of policymakers in promoting science as a societal benefit and the future of space exploration are also key topics.  

This has been a captivating and enlightening conversation, filled with moments of Neil deGrasse Tyson’s signature laughter. We conclude with his inspiring words: “Very happy to help you and others bridge whatever gaps need bridged.”

Complement this discussion with ““The Joy of Science” with Professor Jim Al-Khalili” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2022/05/the-joy-of-science-with-professor-jim-al-khalili/
And then listen to  ““A Traveller’s Guide to the Stars” with Physicist, Author and Nasa Technologist Les Johnson” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/03/a-travellers-guide-to-the-stars-with-physicist-author-and-nasa-technologist-les-johnson/


“Welcome to the Universe in 3D: A Visual Tour” with Neil deGrasse Tyson

Sentience is the feeling aspect of consciousness, encompassing the capacity to experience sensations such as pain, pleasure, and emotions. It is the foundation of subjective experience, distinguishing beings that can feel from those that merely process information or react reflexively. Sentience is a crucial component of consciousness. A key question in studying sentience is how it emerges—whether it arises from complex neural processes, a particular form of computation, or something more fundamental. In his book “From Sensing to Sentience: How Feeling Emerges from the Brain”, Professor Todd Feinberg introduces “Neurobiological Emergentism (NBE)”, a theory explaining how sentience naturally arises as an emergent property of brain functions. Emergent properties are features of a system that do not exist in its individual parts but arise through their interactions. Integrating biological, neurobiological, evolutionary, and philosophical perspectives, Feinberg argues that sentience emerges as a “system-level property” of complex neural interactions. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Professor Todd Feinbergy. 

Dr. Todd Feinberg is a board certified neurologist and psychiatrist and Clinical Professor of Psychiatry at the Icahn School Medicine at Mount Sinai in New York City.

We begin by exploring the basic sensory abilities of single-celled organisms, examining how they react to their environment and survive. We then trace the evolution of multicellular organisms, discussing that when they developed into more complex systems, there is a broader substrate for sensing.   A key focus is how sensory abilities laid the foundation for the evolution of advanced neurobiological systems, ultimately leading to sentience. We discuss in detail how simple sensory functions in early life forms gradually evolved into the rich experiences of animals with complex nervous systems.  

A central idea in the book is that “sentience emerges” as a property of complex neural systems. This perspective helps bridge the gap between neuroscience and philosophy, providing a natural explanation for how subjective experiences arise from the brain. We explore this argument in depth.  Overall, this discussion provides valuable insights into the origins of sentience and its role in the evolution of consciousness.

Complement this discussion with ““Sentience: The Invention of Consciousness” with Professor Nicholas Humphrey” with Professor Payal Arora” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/07/sentience-the-invention-of-consciousness-with-professor-nicholas-humphrey/

And then listen to “”The Network of Life: A New View of Evolution” with Professor David Mindell” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2024/10/the-network-of-life-a-new-view-of-evolution-with-professor-david-mindell/


“From Sensing to Sentience: How Feeling Emerges from the Brain” with Professor Todd Feinberg

Humans are no longer the only entities capable of generating language and ideas with fluency. But this advancement raises a profound question: are artificial intelligence systems truly conscious, or are they simply performing an elaborate imitation of human thought? And if, in the future, claims of AI consciousness become more credible, how will that shift our understanding of these technologies? Will we continue to see them as tools, or begin to recognize them as something closer to persons? In his book “The Line: AI and the Future of Personhood”, Professor James Boyle confronts these complex issues. He explores how questions that once belonged to the realm of science fiction have now become urgent and real. He examines how this technological shift might redefine our understanding of personhood and challenge the boundary—"the line"—that separates humans from everything else, as well as persons with legal rights from inanimate objects. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Professor James Boyle to explore these timely, thought provoking and transformative questions.

James Boyle is a professor of Law at Duke Law School, founder of the Center for the Study of the Public Domain, and former Chair of Creative Commons. He is the winner of the Electronic Frontier Foundation's Pioneer Award for his work on digital civil liberties.


We begin by talking about the idea of personhood—what it means, how we define it, and what separates beings that have personhood from those that don’t. I ask whether it’s simply consciousness that makes the difference. We then explore why empathy is an important part of thinking about personhood.

Next, we discuss the challenge of using consciousness as a dividing line. If consciousness is what separates those with personhood from those without, how can we use such a complex and unclear concept to draw that line?

In his book, The Line: AI and the Future of Personhood, James Boyle uses many examples from science fiction to explore these tough questions. I found this approach fascinating, and I asked him why he chose science fiction as a way to talk about such deep and complicated ideas.

We also talk about similar issues that came up when thinking about the rights of corporations and other non-living things. Then we move on to what we can learn from how rights have been developed for non-human animals. Finally, we touch on recent court cases involving decisions made by artificial intelligence.

Overall, this was a very engaging and insightful conversation.

Complement this discussion with ““Evolutionary Intelligence: How Technology Will Make Us Smarter” with Professor W. Russell Neuman” available at:  
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2024/03/evolutionary-intelligence-how-technology-will-make-us-smarter-with-professor-w-russell-neuman/
And then listen to  ““Reclaiming Human Intelligence and “How to Stay Smart in a Smart World” with Prof. Gerd Gigerenzer” available at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/2023/04/reclaiming-human-intelligence-and-how-to-stay-smart-in-a-smart-world-with-prof-gerd-gigerenzer/


“The Line: AI and the Future of Personhood” with Professor James Boyle

Human Consciousness is a fascinating research topic. Discussed previously in a number of Bridging the Gaps conversations, cutting edge research on consciousness – an ungrasped concept and an unsolved problem in science today – will keep appearing here at this Portal for Curious Minds.  

It is widely accepted that consciousness arises as an emergent property of the human mind. An important question is where does consciousness arise; does this arise from a single seat in the brain or is this a distributed phenomenon involving various interconnected parts and networks of the brain. Whatever is the answer to this question, most researchers relate this phenomenon with the working of human brain. Alva Noe – part philosopher, part cognitive scientist, part neuroscientist – restates and re-examines the problem of consciousness and proposes that we should abandon “200-year-old paradigm that places consciousness within the confines of the brain”. 

Alva Noe is a professor of philosophy at the University of California, Berkeley. He is a member of the Institute of Cognitive and Brain Sciences and the Center of New Media. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard in 1995. 

The focus of this conversation with Alva Noe is his book “Out of Our Heads: Why You are Not Your Brain and Other Lessons from the Biology of Consciousness”. One of the main concepts that Alva Noe presents in this book is that consciousness does not happen in the brain and it is not located in our brains; he suggests that rather than being something that happens inside us, consciousness is something we do. In this conversation we discuss in detail this “fresh attempt at understanding our minds and how we interact with the world around us”.

Why You Are Not Your Brain? A Conversation on Consciousness with Alva Noe

Since 2003, in a unique Earth-trailing orbit around the sun, the Spitzer Space Telescope has been observing in infrared an optically invisible universe dominated by dust and stars. Astronomers have been studying visible universe for thousands of years; however due to interstellar dust clouds and other obstructions to visible light, it was not possible to observe various regions of the universe. The Spitzer Space Telescope, the most sensitive infrared space observatory ever launched, has enabled us to study such optically obscure regions and processes in infrared. “The Spitzer Space Telescope has opened up a new window on the cosmos, yielding new perspectives and crucial insights into the genesis of planets, stars and galaxies”. 

Michael Werner and Peter Eisenhardt are among the scientists who worked for decades to bring this historic mission to life. Their book “More Things in the Heavens: How infrared astronomy is expanding our view of the universe” outlines an inside story of how Spitzer continues to carry out cutting-edge infrared astronomy to help answer fundamental questions that have intrigued humankind since ancient time: Where did we come from? How did the universe evolve? Are we alone? In this episode of Bridging the Gaps podcast, I speak with Michael Werner, one of the authors of this insightful book. Discussing various features of Spitzer’s mission and numerous topics covered in the book, this podcast presents a fascinating view of how infrared astronomy is aiding the search for exoplanets, enabling us to study exoplanet atmospheres, and is transforming our understanding of formation of stars and galaxies, and of the history and evolution of our universe. 

Michael Werner is a senior research scientists at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology. He has been the lead scientist for the Spitzer Space Telescope since 1984.

For more high quality in-depth discussions with researchers and thought leaders, reach us at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/ 
https://soundcloud.com/bridging-the-gaps

Spitzer Space Telescope: Discovering "More Things in the Heavens" with Michael Werner

In the era of big data and super-fast information capturing and processing systems,  it is easy to imagine that we have all the information that lead to actionable insights, that we need to make good decisions. However, according to David Hand, Emeritus Professor of Mathematics and Senior Research Investigator at Imperial College London, the data we have are never complete. Just as much of the universe is composed of dark matter, invisible to us but nonetheless present, the universe of information is full of dark data that we overlook at our peril. In his new book “Dark Data: Why What You Don’t Know Matters” Professor David Hand takes us on a fascinating and enlightening journey into the world of the data we don't see.

As in his book “Brief Answers to the Big Questions” Stephen Hawking notes “No matter how powerful a computer you have, if you put lousy data in you will get lousy predictions out”, it is essential to understand anomalies and imperfections that a dataset may have. These imperfections may lead to incorrect and misleading insights.

The book “Dark Data: Why What You Don’t Know Matters” explores the many ways in which we can be blind to missing data and how that can lead us to conclusions and actions that are mistaken, dangerous, or even disastrous. Full of real-life examples, from the Challenger shuttle explosion to complex financial frauds, the book outlines a practical taxonomy of the types of dark data that exist and the situations in which they can arise, and informs the readers how to recognize and control dark data. Professor David Hand guides us not only to be alert to the problems presented by the things we don’t know, but also shows how dark data can be used to our advantage, leading to greater understanding and better decisions. Data is essential for decision making; the books shows us all how to reduce the risk of making bad decisions.

For more in-depth discussions with researchers and thought leaders, reach us at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/ 
https://soundcloud.com/bridging-the-gaps

"Dark Data: Why What You Don't Know Matters" with Professor David Hand

Throughout history philosophers, poets and explorers have been pondering upon and debating the question that what the long term future of our universe would be. The focus has been on two intriguing perspectives: would the universe continue to exist forever or would it end at some point in time in future. Modern scientists seem to be in agreement that in the distant future the world will end; our universe will die. At that time, humanity might still exist in many unrecognizable spinoff forms, venturing out to distant space, finding new homes and building new civilizations. But the death of the universe if final. It is hard to contemplate that a time will come when, all that we care about, all that we have imagined and built, that all will end. It is equally hard to address the question that how our universe will end. In her latest book “The End of Everything (Astrophysically Speaking)”, Dr Katherine (Katie) Mack outlines five different ways the universe could end, and discusses in detail the mind-blowing lessons each scenario reveals about the most important concepts in physics. In this episode of Bridging the Gaps, I speak with Dr Katie Mack about her research and about these possible endings of our universe. 

Dr Katherine (Katie) Mack is a theoretical astrophysicist who studies a range of questions in cosmology, the study of the universe from beginning to end. She currently holds the position of Assistant Professor of Physics at North Carolina State University, where she is also a member of the Leadership in Public Science Cluster. Throughout her career she has studied dark matter, the early universe, galaxy formation, black holes, cosmic strings, and the ultimate fate of the cosmos. Alongside her academic research, she is an active science communicator and has been published in a number of popular publications such as Scientific American, The New York Times, Slate, Sky & Telescope, and Cosmos Magazine, where she is a columnist.

We start our conversation by discussing with Dr Katie Mack the beginning of the universe; we then discuss nature and the large scale structure of the observable universe. We discuss cutting-edge research on two important unknowns that we are faced with: Dark Matter and Dark Energy. In the book Dr Katie Mack outlines a number of ways in which this universe could end. We discuss in detail two of these possibilities. Finally we discuss the models and theories that we presently use to study the cosmos and how might a “theory of everything” enhance our ability to understand the true nature of reality. This has been a fascinating discussion with one of the most dynamic rising stars in astrophysics.

For more in-depth discussions with researchers and thought leaders, reach us at: 
https://www.bridgingthegaps.ie/ 
https://soundcloud.com/bridging-the-gaps

"The End of Everything (Astrophysically Speaking)" with Dr Katie Mack

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